Original magnifications, × 10 (C) Quantification of results in B

Original magnifications, × 10. (C) Quantification of results in B. *** P < 0.001 for Student's t-test versus Mock + pSRα group, whereas **P < 0.01 for Student's t-test versus HSV-1

+ pSRα group. 3.3. Both overexpression of PTEN and activation of GSK-3β pathway also inhibit HSV-1-induced KSHV reactivation From Figure 2, we observed that expression of PTEN (negative regulator of PI3K/AKT pathway) was low in HSV-1-infected BCBL-1 cells, therefore, we asked whether overexpression of PTEN could influence HSV-1-induced KSHV replication. To address this issue, the PTEN cDNA construct was transfected to the cells. Western blot analysis demonstrated that overexpression of PTEN not only decreased phosphorylated AZD6244 purchase AKT and GSK-3β (data not shown), but also reduced HSV-1-induced KSHV Rta and vIL-6 proteins expression (Figure 5A). To further determine whether overexpression of PTEN could reduce the release of KSHV progeny virions induced by HSV-1, experiments were designed to detect the copy number of KSHV progeny virions. The results of real-time DNA-PCR demonstrated that the copy number of KSHV virions in the supernatant from PTEN-transfected and HSV-1 infected BCBL-1 cells was significantly decreased when compared

to those from pcDNA-transfected and HSV-1 infected BCBL-1 cells (Figure 5B). Figure 5 Overexpression of PTEN and activation of GSK-3β inhibit HSV-1-induced KSHV reactivation. (A) Western blot analysis was used to detect the expression of KSHV Rta, vIL-6 and the level of the transfected PTEN in PTEN or Opaganib mw control vector transfected and HSV-1 infected BCBL-1 cells as indicated. (B) Real-time DNA-PCR was used to detect the copy number of KSHV progeny virions in the supernatant of PTEN or control vector transfected and HSV-1 infected BCBL-1 cells as indicated. ** p < 0.01 and ## p < 0.01 for Student's t-test versus Mock + pcDNA and HSV-1 + pcDNA groups, respectively. (C) Western blot analysis was used to detect the expression of KSHV Rta, vIL-6 and the level of the transfected GSK-3β-S9A

in GSK-3β-S9A or control vector transfected and HSV-1 infected BCBL-1 cells as indicated. Because HSV-1 infection of BCBL-1 cells increased phosphorylated GSK-3β (Figure 2) and transfection of PI3K-DN decreased STK38 HSV-1-induced phosphorylation of GSK-3β (Figure 3C), we reasoned that inactivated GSK-3β might promote HSV-1-induced KSHV replication. To test this hypothesis, the GSK-3β mutant plasmid GSK-3β-S9A, which exhibits constitutively active GSK-3β, was transfected to BCBL-1 cells. As expected, the expression of KSHV Rta and vIL-6 proteins in GSK-3β-S9A-transfected and HSV-1 infected BCBL-1 cells was markedly reduced compared to pcDNA-transfected and HSV-1 infected BCBL-1 cells (Figure 5C). Taken together, these data suggest that PTEN/PI3K/AKT/GSK-3β pathway may play an important role in HSV-1-induced KSHV reactivation. 3.4.

PubMedCrossRef 22 Lappin-Scott HM, Costerton JW: Microbial biofi

PubMedCrossRef 22. Lappin-Scott HM, Costerton JW: Microbial biofilms. Cambridge University Press; 1995.CrossRef 23. Allison DG: Community structure and Co-operation in biofilms. Cambridge University Press; 2000.CrossRef 24. Pierce GE: Pseudomonas

aeruginosa, Candida albicans , and device-related nosocomial infections: implications, trends, and potential approaches for control. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 2005,32(7):309–318.PubMedCrossRef 25. Senpuku H, Sogame A, Inoshita E, Tsuha Y, Miyazaki H, Hanada N: Systemic diseases in association with microbial species PF 2341066 in oral biofilm from elderly requiring care. Gerontology 2003,49(5):301–309.PubMedCrossRef 26. Hogan DA, Vik A, Kolter R: A Pseudomonas aeruginosa quorum-sensing molecule influences Candida albicans morphology. Mol Microbiol 2004,54(5):1212–1223.PubMedCrossRef 27. El-Azizi MA, Starks SE, Khardori N: Interactions of Candida albicans with other Candida spp . and bacteria in the biofilms. J Appl Microbiol 2004,96(5):1067–1073.PubMedCrossRef 28. Hogan DA, Kolter R:

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LP, Samaranayake Y, Yip HK: Biofilm formation of Candida albicans is variably affected by saliva and dietary sugars. RAS p21 protein activator 1 Arch Oral Biol 2004,49(10):789–798.PubMedCrossRef 33. Jin Y, Zhang T, Samaranayake YH, Fang HH, Yip HK, Samaranayake LP: The use of new probes and stains for improved assessment of cell viability and extracellular polymeric substances in Candida albicans biofilms. Mycopathologia 2005,159(3):353–360.PubMedCrossRef 34. Ramage G, Vandewalle K, Wickes BL, Lopez-Ribot JL: Characteristics of biofilm formation by Candida albicans . Rev Iberoam Micol 2001,18(4):163–170.PubMed Authors’ contributions LPS, LJJ, RMW and HMHNB conceived this research. HMHNB and JYYY designed and performed the experiments. HMHNB, LPS, LJJ contributed in data analysis and interpretation. HMHNB drafted the manuscript and it was reviewed by LPS, LJJ, RMW and JYYY. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.”
“Background Pseudomonas fluorescens is a highly heterogeneous species, as shown the extensive literature on the taxonomy and phylogeny of this species [1–4]. These studies include saprophytic, rhizopheric and phytopathogenic strains of P.

Until now, the associations between osteocalcin and insulin secre

Until now, the associations between osteocalcin and insulin secretion and sensitivity were primarily measured by HOMA values;

however, INK 128 order the model predicts the fasting steady-state glucose and insulin concentrations for a wide range of possible combinations of insulin resistance and β-cell function, and it is difficult to determine the true dynamic function of β-cell insulin secretion. In addition, in subjects with severely impaired β-cell function, HOMA-IR did not represent appropriate insulin resistance status [17], and therefore the agreement between HOMA-IR and clamp-measured insulin sensitivity remains controversial [12]. The current study was unique and powered because we determined the association between plasma osteocalcin levels and insulin sensitivity with OGTT-driven dynamic methods that have been extensively validated against euglycemic clamp methods, and determined the β-cell function Copanlisib with diverse

parameters, including the HOMA-B%, insulinogenic index, AUC insulin/glucose, and disposition index. According to the original observation by Lee et al. [1], osteocalcin regulates insulin sensitivity, at least in part, through adiponectin gene expression. In the current study, the plasma adiponectin levels were significantly different across the osteocalcin tertiles (p < 0.001) and were positively correlated with the indices representing insulin sensitivity, including Matsuda’s, Stumvoll’s, and OGIS indices (data not

shown, all p < 0.01). In multiple linear regression analyses, however, the plasma osteocalcin levels were still significantly associated with improved glucose tolerance and insulin secretion and sensitivity indices even after controlling for the adiponectin levels. Therefore, adiponectin did 4��8C not mediate the association between the osteocalcin level and glucose tolerance and insulin secretion and sensitivity in humans. In addition, we investigated whether or not the plasma osteocalcin level is inversely associated with the development of T2DM. The results indicated that the plasma osteocalcin level is inversely associated with the development of T2DM independent of well-established risk factors for diabetes, such as age, gender, BMI, and baseline fasting plasma glucose level and circulating adipokines including plasma adiponectin and leptin levels. These results suggest that osteocalcin-mediated increased insulin sensitivity may not involve adiponectin gene upregulation in humans but may involve other mechanisms. This is the first report to demonstrate an independent association, especially independent of plasma adiponectin levels, between plasma osteocalcin levels and improved glucose tolerance and insulin secretion and sensitivity. In contrast with our results, Shea et al.

Neoplasia 2003, 5: 481–488 PubMed 57

Kim JH, Yoon SY, Ki

Neoplasia 2003, 5: 481–488.PubMed 57.

Kim JH, Yoon SY, Kim CN, Joob JH, Moona SK, Choeb IS, Choeb YK, Kimb JW: The Bmi-1 oncoprotein is overexpressed in human colorectal cancer and correlates with the reduced p16INK4a/p14ARF proteins. Cancer Lett 2004, 203: 217–224.PubMedCrossRef 58. Varambally S, Dhanasekaran Enzalutamide in vitro SM, Zhou M, Barrette TR, Kumar-Sinha C, Sanda MG, Ghosh D, Pienta KJ, Sewalt RGAB, Otte AP, Rubin MA, Chinnaiyan AM: The Polycomb group protein EZH2 is involved in progression of prostate cancer. Nature 2002, 419: 624–629.PubMedCrossRef 59. Datta S, Hoenerhoff MJ, Bommi P, Sainger R, Guo WJ, Dimri M, Band H, Band V, Green JE, Dimri GP: Bmi-1 Cooperates with H-Ras to Transform Human Mammary Epithelial Cells via Dysregulation of Multiple Growth-Regulatory Pathways. Cancer Res 2007, 67: 10286–10295.PubMedCrossRef 60. Wang Q, Li WL, You P, Su J, Zhu MH, Xie

DF, Zhu HY, He ZY, Li JX, Ding XY, Wang X, Hu YP: Oncoprotein BMI-1 induces the malignant transformation of HaCaT cells. J Cell Biochem 2009, 106: 16–24.PubMedCrossRef click here 61. Zhao J, Luo XD, Da CL, Xin Y: Clinicopathological significance of B-cell-specific Moloney murine leukemia virus insertion site 1 expression in gastric carcinoma and its precancerous lesion. World J Gastroenterol 2009, 15: 2145–2150.PubMedCrossRef 62. Tagawa M, Sakamoto T, Shigemoto K, Matsubara H, Tamura Y, Ito T, Nakamura I, Okitsu A, Imai K, Taniguchi M: Expression of novel DNA-binding protein with zinc finger structure in various tumor cells. J Biol Chem 1990, 265: 20021–20026.PubMed 63. Tetsu O, Ishihara H, Kanno R, Kamiyasu M, Inoue H, Tokuhisa T, Taniguchi M, Kanno M: Mel-18 negatively regulates cell cycle progression upon B cell antigen receptor stimulation through a cascade leading to c-myc/cdc25. Methane monooxygenase Immunity 1998, 9: 439–448.PubMedCrossRef 64. Kanno M, Hasegawa M, Ishida A, Isono K, Taniguchi M: mel-18, a Polycomb group-related mammalian

gene, encodes a transcriptional negative regulator with tumor suppressive activity. EMBO J 1995, 14: 5672–5678.PubMed Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Authors’ contributions LYW performed the experiment and prepared the manuscript; LJ supervised the experiment; GWJ designed the experiment and supervised the project. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.”
“Background Gastric cancer is among the most common form of cancer of the digestive system with an estimated incidence of approximately 22000 cases in the USA for 2008 [1], and is still one of the most common cancer-related causes of death in the world, particularly in Asian countries [2]. Worldwide, gastric carcinoma is the third most common form of cancer with overall 5-year survival rate of less than 20% as most patients are diagnosed late and are unsuitable for curative surgery.

Bull Ecol Soc Am 80:231–234CrossRef Scarascia-Mugnozza G, Oswald

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woodlands in landscapes with different forest cover for medium-sized Iberian carnivores. Biodiv Conserv 10:1039–1049CrossRef

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“Introduction There is a lot of ongoing debate regarding the explanation of plant and animal diversification in the Amazon basin and adjacent Guianas. Several historical biogeographic scenarios have been suggested (e.g. Haffer 1997, 2008; Hall and Harvey 2002; Noonan and Wray 2006). This paper focuses on the disturbance vicariance hypothesis (DV), which is described by Bush (1994), Noonan and Gaucher (2005) and Haffer (2008) derived from MYO10 pollen analyses and patterns of species phylogenies. DV explains incomplete speciation in taxa on the eastern Guiana Shield due to relatively short phases of climate change during Pleistocene. During interglacials, cool-adapted species were retracted to higher elevations and allopatric speciation started, a process which was interrupted (‘disturbed’) as renewed glacials allowed for secondary contact via lowlands. Such a scenario, for instance, is suggested for caesalpinioid trees (Dutech et al. 2003) or bufonid and dendrobatid frogs (Noonan and Gaucher 2005, 2006). According to Bush (1994) and Noonan and Gaucher (2005), cool-adapted Guiana Shield taxa, which have undergone DV, are of Andean origin.

Nat Rev Microbiol 2008, 6:441–454 PubMed 2 Nemati M, Jenneman GE

Nat Rev Microbiol 2008, 6:441–454.PubMed 2. Nemati M, Jenneman GE, Voordouw G: Mechanistic study of microbial control of hydrogen sulfide production in oil reservoirs. Biotechnol Bioeng 2001, 74:424–434.PubMedCrossRef 3. Videla HA, Herrera LK: Microbiologically influenced corrosion: looking to the future. Int Microbiol 2005, 8:169–180.PubMed 4. Korenblum E, Valoni E, Penna M, Seldin L: Bacterial diversity in water injection systems of Brazilian offshore oil platforms. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2010, 85:791–800.PubMedCrossRef 5. Videla HA: Prevention and control of biocorrosion. Inter Biodeterd Biodegrad 2001, 4:259–270. 6. NACE International – the corrosion https://www.selleckchem.com/products/PLX-4032.html societyhttp://​www.​nace.​org/​

7. Ongena M, Jacques P: Bacillus lipopeptides: versatile weapons for plant disease biocontrol.

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Several studies have reported the usefulness of phage-display app

Several studies have reported the usefulness of phage-display applications for mapping epitopes of flaviviruses [[22–25]]. The aim of our study was to identify WNV-specific and/or JEV serocomplex-specific B-cell epitopes in NS1 using phage display technology. The information provided by this study will facilitate the development of diagnostic tools for the specific serological diagnosis of WNV infection, and will contribute to PD-1 antibody the rational design of vaccines by furthering understanding

of the antigenic structure of NS1. Results Production of recombinant NS1 Recombinant WNV NS1 was successfully expressed in E. coli TB1 cells, predominantly as soluble protein, after induction with isopropyl β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG). The recombinant protein was recognized by WNV-positive equine serum in Western blot (WB) (Figure 1, lane 1). Figure 1 WNV-positive equine sera Maraviroc mouse recognize recombinant NS1. Binding of antibodies from WNV-positive equine serum

to recombinant NS1 (lane 1) and MBP-tag (lane 2) by Western blot. M, PageRuler™ Prestained Protein Ladder (Fermentas, Canada). Production and characterization of NS1-specific mAbs Purified protein was used to immunize BALB/c mice. After cell fusion and screening, several hybridoma cell lines were obtained which produced NS1-specific mAbs. Among them two cell lines were selected for their strongest reactivity against recombinant NS1 using indirect ELISA (data not shown), WB (Figure 2a), and against native NS1 in IFA using WNV antigen slides (Figure 2b). Further characterization of the specificity of the two mAbs by IFA, demonstrated that the mAb 3C7 reacted with WNV, but did not react with JEV, DENV1-4, Yellow fever virus (YFV) and Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), whereas mAb 4D1 reacted with both WNV and JEV, but did not react

with other non-JEV serocomplex flaviviruses (Figure 2b). Figure 2 Reactivity of mAbs with recombinant NS1 and C6/36 cells infected with flaviviruses. (a) Western blot analysis of mAbs 3C7 (lanes 1, 2) and 4D1 (lanes 3, 4) against recombination NS1 (lane 1, 3) and MBP-tag (lane 2, 4). M, PageRuler™ Prestained Protein Ladder (Fermentas, Canada). (b) Pattern of immunofluorescence JAK inhibitor produced by anti-NS1 mAbs on antigen slides which were prepared on porous slides using C6/36 cells infected with different flaviviruses. Panels 1-8: reactivity of mAb 3C7 with cells infected with WNV (panel 1), JEV (panel 2), DENV1 (panel 3), DENV2 (panel 4), DENV3 (panel 5), DENV4 (panel 6), YFV (panel 7), and TBEV (panel 8). Panels 11-18: reactivity of mAb 4D1 with cells infected with WNV (panel 11), JEV (panel 12), DENV1 (panel 13), DENV2 (panel 14), DENV3 (panel 15), DENV4 (panel 16), YFV (panel 17), and TBEV (panel 18).

The size distribution of supported gold nanoparticles was evaluat

The size distribution of supported gold nanoparticles was evaluated by a statistical measurement of 300 randomly selected particles, which can be found in Figure 2d. These particles are in the range 2 to 8 nm and the average size centers at 4.1 nm. Figure 1 XRD patterns of HNTs and Au/HNTs. Black circle, metallic Au. Figure 2 TEM images of the HNTs and Au/HNTs and size distribution . (a) Pure HNTs. (b) Gold nanoparticles in the HNTs. (c)

High-resolution TEM image of gold nanoparticles. (d) Size distribution of supported gold nanoparticles. Figure 3 shows the representative Au 4f core level XPS spectrum of the Au/HNTs catalyst. Broad peaks of Au 4f7/2 and Au 4f5/2 states were observed in the Au/HNTs sample, indicating the presence of both metallic Proteasome inhibitor and ionic gold species [12, 13]. In addition to the main peak characteristic of metallic Au0, the XPS spectra also contain the 4f7/2 signals from Au1+ ions [12, 13]. The deconvolution analysis results of the Au 4f spectra of the Au/HNTs catalysts showed that about 60% of the gold species are oxidized Au1+ species. Similar to our findings, Abad et al. have recently shown by XPS and IR spectroscopy the presence of positive gold ions in Au/CeO2 catalyst [14]. Such species has been suggested to be of vital importance in the rate-controlling step during the oxidation of alcohols involving the hydride shift from alcohol to gold [15]. Figure 3 Representative Au 4f core level XPS

spectrum of Au/HNTs. For the Au/HNTs catalyst, solvent-free aerobic oxidation of Selleck Trichostatin A benzyl alcohol which is often employed as a model reaction for alcohol oxidation was chosen to test its catalytic activity [16–18]. The control experiments using the

pure HNTs reveal that less than 2% of the benzyl alcohol can be selectively these converted to benzaldehyde within 8 h at 110°C. Figure 4 shows a typical set of results for benzyl alcohol conversion over the Au/HNTs catalyst, illustrating the dependence of conversion and selectivity on the reaction time. As the reaction proceeded, the conversion of benzyl alcohol and the selectivity to benzyl benzoate increased, while the selectivity to benzaldehyde decreased. Enache et al. [17] and Abad et al. [14] have recently reported very high turnover frequency (TOF) values in the solvent-free oxidation of benzyl alcohol at about 100°C for Au-Pd/TiO2 (TOF = 607 h−1) and Au/CeO2 (TOF = 150 h−1) catalysts, respectively. To compare with other reported catalysts, the catalytic performance of the Au/HNTs catalyst in the solvent-free aerobic oxidation of benzyl alcohol at 110°C under atmospheric pressure was also investigated. The results showed that the Au/HNTs catalyst exhibited a specific rate of 307 h−1 under similar reaction conditions. This value compares favorably with the results reported on Au/CeO2 catalysts [17], demonstrating that our catalytic system can serve as a promising catalyst for the selective oxidation of alcohols.

7 ± 5 9% Follow up was available for 87 patients and ranged from

7 ± 5.9%. Follow up was available for 87 patients and ranged from 1 to 165 months (median 64 months). Survival time was calculated from the date of surgery to the date of death or of the last follow up. The expression of HIF-1α, VEGF-A and VEGF-C in carcinoma cells was compared to tumor variables that represent prognostic factors in CRCC: nuclear grade,

Gefitinib clinical trial tumor size, Ki67 proliferative index and pathologic stage (Table 2). Table 2 Relation of HIF-1α, VEGF-A and VEGF-C to clinicopathologic parameters     Nuclear grade1 P value Tumor size (cm)1 p value Ki67 (%)1,2 P value Pathologic stage1 P value     1,2 3,4   < 7 ≥ 7   low high   1 2,3,4,   HIF-1α nHIF-1α 49.5 39 0.006 48.6 43.6 0.057 43.9 48.1 0.134 48.1 44.5 0.165 (%)   (16.3–82.3) (19.2–72.6)   (27.9–73.9) (16.3–82.3)   (16.3–72.4) (21.2–82.3)   (27.9–73.9) (16.3–82.3)     cHIF-1α 11.4 18.7 0.006 11.3 Selleck LY2157299 17.5 0.009 14.6 11.6 0.246 11.4 16.6 0.023     (1.4–75) (5.2–59.5)   (1.4–59.5) (2.9–75)   (4.3–75) (1.4–46.5)   (1.4–42.6) (2.9–75)   VEGF-A pVEGF-A 15 12.5 0.307 15 7.5 0.173 12.5 12.7 0.658 12.1 17.5 0.682 (%)

  (0.00–94) (0–75)   (0–94) (0–75)   (0–94) (0–75)   (0–94) (0–75)     dVEGF-A 6.7 30 <0.001 6.7 16.7 0.015 10.6 10 0.652 6.3 11.7 0.027     (0–92.5) (0–90)   (0–67.5) (0–92.5)   (0–92.5) (0–83.3)   (0–76.7) (0–92.5)   VEGF-C pVEGF-C 65 14 <0.001 64.2 27.9 0.007 45 55 0.913 61.3 33.3 0.042 (%)   (0–100) (0–92.5)   (0–100) (0–100)   (0–100) (0–100)   (0–100) (0–100)     dVEGF-C 18.5 37 0.004 18 37.1 0.007 25

26.3 0.516 20 30 0.109     (0–100) (0–100)   (0–100) (0–100)   (0–100) (0–100)   (0–100) (0–100)   1Mann-Whitney U-test; median (range);2cut-off is mean Nuclear HIF-1α and pVEGF-C expression was associated with lower nuclear grade and smaller tumor size indicating better prognosis, while cHIF-1α together with dVEGF-A and -C was associated with worse prognostic factors, i.e. higher nuclear grade, larger tumor size and higher tumor stage. There was no association of Ki67 index with either protein analyzed. Association of HIF-1α, VEGF-A and -C with patient survival The association of immunohistochemical cAMP positivity for HIF-1α, VEGF-A and VEGF-C and cumulative proportion of patients surviving during the follow up are shown in Figure 2. Figure 2 Kaplan-Meier cumulative survival analysis according to staining for nuclear and cytoplasmic HIF-1α, VEGF-A and VEGF-C. The log-rank test showed significantly shorter overall survival in patients with tumors showing low nHIF-1α (p = 0.005) (A) and low pVEGF-C (p = 0.008) (D). The 5-year survival rate was 32% for patients whose tumors showed low nHIF-1α vs. 65% for patients whose tumors showed high nHIF-1α (A); and 40% for patients whose tumors showed low pVEGF-C vs. 61% for patients whose tumors showed high pVEGF-C (D). The log-rank test showed significantly shorter overall survival in patients with tumors showing high cHIF-1α (p = 0.018) (B) and high dVEGF-A (p = 0.024) (C).

Whilst none of the risk estimates was significantly different, a

Whilst none of the risk estimates was significantly different, a clear trend was evident and this supports the possibility that stronger

inhibition of the 5-HTT system on the bone could cause a greater disruption of the balance between osteoblasts click here and osteoclasts and hence have a greater detrimental effect on bone micro-architecture. Drug-induced changes in bone micro-architecture can be rapid. Analysis of the micro-architecture of femur bone in rats treated with 5-HT showed changes in trabecular bone volume and an increased femoral stiffness after just 3 months [10]. Other drug exposures had demonstrated similarly rapid effects on human bone, e.g. corticosteroids [42, 43]. It is possible that a rapid change in bone micro-architecture affected by anti-depressant use accounted for, or at least contributed to, the increased fracture risk during the early months of exposure. We found that as the duration of treatment with TCAs increased, the risk of fracture declined, whereas the risk for fracture with continuation of SSRIs fell after the initial increase but remained somewhat elevated thereafter.

It may be that with chronic administration of anti-depressants, adaptive changes occur [44]. These may result in an adjustment to the cardiovascular effect of TCAs and SSRIs, explaining the decrease in fracture risk after a few months of use, whereas changes in bone physiology are not subject to adaptive changes, explaining the sustained find more fracture risk in SSRI users. Limitations of our study include absence of potentially confounding data on body mass index (BMI), smoking status and exercise. In a US/Puerto Rican cohort study, it was likely that lack of adjustment for BMI, current smoking status, activities of daily living score, cognitive impairment and Rosow–Breslau physical impairment scale accounted for up to 30% of the increased risk of hip fractures amongst users of SSRIs [45]. We do not anticipate that missing data on these variables would have an important impact on our findings; therefore, as if our ORs were decreased by 30%, a positive association would remain. Another limitation lies in the potential for confounding by

indication, as depression Tyrosine-protein kinase BLK itself is associated with an increased risk of falls and fractures [46]. There is also the possibility of a channelling effect whereby, for some frail patients with depression, an SSRI was prescribed instead of a TCA because of the more favourable side-effect profile anticipated. This could have overestimated the risk associated with SSRIs observed here. These unmeasured types of confounding as well as selection bias (e.g. healthy user bias), which can change over time, may be alternative explanations for our observed associations between fracture risk and duration of anti-depressant use or discontinuation of anti-depressants. In Figs. 1 and 2, data beyond 4 years are sparse, which makes extrapolation uncertain. Lastly, the PAR calculation showed that 4.