MDSCs were first identified as tumour-associated APCs that have highly suppressive effects on T-cell responses via their production of enzymes such as arginase and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS),76 but this type of regulatory APC may also play an important role in immune responses during infection. De Santo et al.59 found that infection of Jα281 knockout mice with influenza virus Vismodegib ic50 resulted in

the appearance of an increased frequency of MDSCs compared with wild-type mice. The suppressive effects of MDSCs diminished after adoptive transfer of iNKT cells, and this conversion was mediated through the interaction of CD40 and CD40L.59 Similarly, Ko et al.77 used a tumour model system to demonstrate that iNKT cells can induce the differentiation of MDSCs into a mature DC-like cell that can mediate protective antitumour responses. These studies suggest that another pro-inflammatory pathway mediated by iNKT cells is the conversion of tolerogenic APCs into DCs that stimulate Th1 T-cell responses (Fig. 1c). Evidence for a role of iNKT cells in promoting tolerance in vivo comes from studies in several different

systems, including models of: (1) autoimmune disorders; (2) transplant tolerance; (3) burn injury-induced immune suppression; and (4) antigen-specific tolerance. The following is a brief review of the primary findings in these areas. 1  Autoimmune disorders. Initial indications of selleck compound the involvement of iNKT cells in immune tolerance came from observations that the frequency and functional responses

of iNKT cells are diminished in non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice, which are highly susceptible to developing autoimmune diseases,78 and that depletion of iNKT cells leads to the development of autoimmunity in MRL/lpr mice, a model with similarity to human systemic lupus erythematosus.79 There also appear to be selective reductions in iNKT cell frequency and function in human patients with a variety of autoimmune diseases.80–83 Adoptive transfer of iNKT cells, or over-expression of either iNKT cells or CD1d molecules, prevents the onset of diabetes in NOD mice.84–86 Moreover, administration of α-GalCer or similar lipids results in amelioration of autoimmune disease in many systems, including models of multiple sclerosis,87–89 type I diabetes,90–92 and myasthenia gravis.93 The studies described above clearly establish that iNKT Progesterone cells play a role in inducing and/or maintaining peripheral tolerance, yet the mechanisms by which they mediate their tolerogenic effects are not well resolved. As iNKT cells are known to produce a wide variety of cytokines, one possibility is that they provide an essential source of immunoregulatory cytokines such as IL-10, or that they can shift the balance away from pro-inflammatory processes by producing Th2 cytokines such as IL-4. Indeed, iNKT cell production of IL-10 has been shown to be required for their tolerance-promoting effects in the ACAID model.