Timely highlighted concurrent selleckchem events are Tdp-43 overexpression in the nucleus of MNs and the presence of mild oxidative stress. Loss of cholinergic synapses was reported in ALS patients (Nagao et al. 1998) and subsequent studies of central synaptic connections of lumbar spinal MNs suggested that synaptic dysfunction precedes synaptic loss (Matsumoto et al. 1994; Sasaki and Maruyama 1994; Ikemoto et al. 2002). However, limited investigation

targeting ChAT directly has been carried out on Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical ALS animal models. In the SOD1G93A model, the most studied one, ChAT activity has been analyzed either by enzyme activity determination (Crochemore et al. 2005) or by Western blot of whole spinal cord extracts (Alves et al. 2011). These studies did not reveal any abnormalities before the symptomatic phase and thus later cholinergic dysfunction was attributed to MN loss. We confirm these observations

when analyzed the protein levels by Western blot Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of the whole lumbar spinal extract. However, by using immunohistochemical analysis of ChAT expression, which is more sensitive to demonstrate specific changes in levels and in particular cells, we show for the first time that ChAT content is clearly reduced in soma of MNs and cholinergic synaptic terminals very early, by 1 month of age, before any loss of MNs occurs. We also observed this reduction in cholinergic interneurons. These interneurons normally Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical make synapses onto MNs (putatively cholinergic C-boutons) (Barber et al. 1984) to ensure that sufficient output is generated by MNs to drive motor behavior (Miles et al. 2007; Zagoraiou et al. 2009). Thus, reduction of ChAT levels in cholinergic interneurons and MN somata themselves contributes to the observed reduction in ChAT content in the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical synaptic boutons Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical apposed to spinal MNs. Consistently, an early reduction in ChAT transcript content

was also observed by that time suggesting that signaling changes in neuronal metabolism are implicated. Considering several early pathological events described in SOD1G93A mice, we were trying to figure out the possible cause linked to this early ChAT reduction. On one hand, ALS has been proposed to be a distal axotomy type of neurodegenerative disease (Dadon-Nachum et al. 2011). In agreement with that, SOD1G93A mice show detachment of neuromuscular junctions as early as 47 days of age, followed Etomidate by a severe loss of motor axons in the ventral root between days 47 and 80, and electrophysiological studies revealed reduced neuromuscular responses by 2 months of age (Mancuso et al. 2011), well before α-MN cell bodies die around day 110 (Fischer et al. 2004; Dadon-Nachum et al. 2011). Furthermore, disconnected vulnerable MNs selectively overexpress markers of ER stress like ATF3 by the same time (Saxena et al. 2009). As early reduction of ChAT is a common event in damaged MNs after peripheral disconnection (Wang et al.