NLRP3 is a cytosolic pattern recognition receptor (PRR) that,

when stimulated by toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) activation or ATP, both of which are regulated by stress, binds to pro-caspase-1, forming the inflammasome complex. Pro-caspase-1 is cleaved and in turn cleaves pro-IL-1β into IL-1β, which is then released from the cell. Microglia constitutively express the components of the NLRP3 inflammasome, and acute restraint stress activates the NLRP3 inflammasome in the hippocampus, the brain region containing the highest concentration of microglia and IL-1β receptors (Iwata et al., 2013 and Farrar et al., 1987). Ibrutinib manufacturer Intracerebroventricular (i.c.v) administration of IL-1 results in increased anxiety-like behavior in the elevated plus maze and open field as well as spatial memory deficits in the Morris water maze (Song et al., 2006). In contrast, pharmacologic or genetic inhibition of Interleukin-1 Receptor 1 (IL-1R1) blocks anhedonia in rats exposed to CUS (Koo and Duman, 2008). Interestingly, i.c.v administration of an IL-1R1 antagonist prevented shuttle box escape failure following pretreatment

with repeated, inescapable tail shocks (Maier and Watkins, 1995). These results suggest that IL-1β signaling is an important mediator of behavioral vulnerability and resilience to LH and CUS in rats, and that IL-1β and its downstream effectors may be promising targets for promoting behavioral resilience to stress. Downstream mechanisms by which IL-1β influences behavioral outcomes to stress include HPA axis activation as well as modulation of hippocampal neurogenesis. Stress-induced IL-1β modulates the SB203580 concentration HPA axis by stimulating release of CRF from the hypothalamus and subsequent downstream release of ACTH from the pituitary gland (Iwata et al., 2013, Sapolsky

et al., 1987 and Berkenbosch et al., 1987). Blockade of IL-1R1 via antagonist administration or null mutation prevents CUS-induced reductions in cells positive for BrdU (Bromodeoxyuridine, a marker of cell division) and DCX (doublecortin, a marker of immature neurons), indicating that chronic stress inhibits neurogenesis in an IL-1β dependent fashion (Koo and Duman, 2008). In the same study, in vitro incubation with Ketanserin IL-1β decreased the proliferation of adult hippocampal progenitor cells, an effect blocked by co-incubation with inhibitors of NFκB signaling. As the IκK–NFκB signaling pathway is activated by IL-1β and other pro-inflammatory cytokines, it is a promising candidate mediator of the downstream effects of IL-1β. A follow-up study revealed that, indeed, exposure to an acute stressor activated NFκB signaling in neural stem-like cells (NSCs), and NFκB activation in NSCs was dependent upon IL-1β signaling ( Koo et al., 2010). Moreover, i.c.v. administration of an NFκB inhibitor throughout CUS blocked the subsequent stress-induced decrease in BrdU+DCX+ cells as well as the expression of anxiety-like and anhedonic behaviors.