Inulin-type fructans in RAF were obtained by partial hydrolysis of inulin, which was extracted from chicory roots (Chicorium intybus). Total fructans, glucose, fructose and sucrose in the YF were analysed by spectrophotometry (Steegmans, Iliaens, & Hoebregs, 2004). Insoluble (IDF) and soluble (SDF) dietary fibres were determined by the enzymatic–gravimetric method (Prosky, Asp, Schweizer, Devries, & Furda, 1988). The Fe concentrations in the diets and in the YF were analysed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS; AAnalyst 100, Perkin Elmer, Norwalk, CT, USA) using a hollow cathode lamp at 283.4 nm and a slit of 0.2 nm after wet digestion (HNO3:H2O2,

5:1; v/v). The working standard solution

was prepared with ferric http://www.selleckchem.com/products/dinaciclib-sch727965.html chloride (FeCl3) (Tritisol, Merck, Darmstadt, Germany). YF analysis showed 18% total fructans, 28.3% sucrose, 15.7% fructose, 6% IDF, 4% SDF and 4 μg Fe/g. The diet consumption in the repletion period was determined every 2 days, and the Hb concentration in the blood was obtained through tail puncture every 7 days (days 0, 7 and 14) via the Vorinostat research buy cyanide Hb method (Drabkin & Austin, 1935). The Hb concentrations and Fe consumption results were used to estimate the following parameters (Mahoney, Van Orden, & Hendricks, 1974): (1) Hb Fe pool (mg), assuming the total blood volume was 6.7% body weight and Fe content in Hb was 0.335%: Hb Fe pool=[body wt(g)×Hb(g/l)×6.7×0.335]/10,000Hb Fe pool=[body wt(g)×Hb(g/l)×6.7×0.335]/10,000 At the time of euthanasia, blood was obtained from the abdominal aorta. Blood samples

obtained without anticoagulant were collected, and serum Fe concentrations and the unsaturated Fe-binding capacity (UIBC) were determined (Labtest Diagnóstica S/A, Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil). The total Fe-binding capacity (TIBC) and transferrin saturation were calculated from the values of serum Fe and UIBC. Blood samples with anticoagulant (EDTA; 1 mg/ml; Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO, USA) were obtained for complete and differential cell counts (Dacies & Lewis, 1949). The femoral cavity was flushed with McCoy’s 5A medium (Sigma Chemical TCL Co., St. Louis, MO, USA) to collect bone marrow cells. Spleen cells were obtained after disrupting the splenic capsule and dissociating the tissue in McCoy’s 5A medium. The total number of cells was quantified in a standard haemocytometer (Neubauer chamber; Herka, Berlin, Germany), and reticulocyte counts were carried out according to Brecher‘s method (Brecher, 1949). The liver Fe concentrations were analysed by AAS, as described for dietary Fe analysis. The faecal moisture content was determined through sample weight loss in an oven at 105 °C. The dried faeces were ground and the samples were used for mineral analysis.

(25). Between Line 2 and Line 3, the substrate deforms strongly and it takes a concave shape with two inflection points, as displayed in Fig. 4(b) (phase II in Fig. 5). Between Line 3 and Line 4, the substrate possesses a convex morphology, corresponding to Fig. 4(d) (phase III in Fig. 5). Similar shapes can be verified by the finite element method in analysis of a droplet wrapped by a soft plate. [31]. Up Line 4, the valid shape of the vesicle-substrate system does not exist. Moreover, our findings can also set some illustrations of the opening angle of a soft membrane adhered by a droplet, which was controlled by the voltage [30]. It is found that when the voltage Decitabine purchase is zero, the opening angle has two

possible solutions, i.e. one is negative and the other is positive. In our model, we introduce the definition of opening angle of the substrate φ = 2ϕ0 − π, and the relationship between the opening angle and the reduced work of adhesion NVP-BEZ235 cell line with a fixed value of κ1/κ2 = 0.5 can be plotted in Fig. 6. From the figure we can see that there are two or three solution branches. In addition, the opening angle decreases with the increase of the work

of adhesion in a large range, which can be analogous to the droplet-membrane controlled by the electric voltage [30]. When w > 1.025, phase II (low branch) has lower energy and when 0.78 < w < 1.025, phase IV (green branch) has lower energy. When w < 0.78, there is only one solution. In the similar phenomenon, the voltage was input when the membrane-droplet is like phase I in Fig. 3, and the opening angle decreases with the increase of the voltage Calpain [30]. If the voltage is input to the droplet-membrane system like phase II in Fig. 3, shape saturation will occur and there is a sudden jump of the opening angle from point p to point p′. The developed model can certainly degenerate to the case of a vesicle adhering on a rigid substrate, where κ1/κ2 = 0. In this case, the function of the reduced free energy versus the reduced work of adhesion can be calculated, and the curve is demonstrated in Fig. 7. Clearly, the free energy of the system decreases

with the increase of the work of adhesion. This means that if a cell is deposited on a rigid substrate, it is prone to the position with strong adhesion capability. This result can provide some inspirations to control the moving direction of a living cell on a rigid substrate, by engineering some special materials with different surface energies. Fig. 8 shows the projected length as a function of the work of adhesion. The curve tells us that the projected length (as schematized in the figure) decreases with the increase of the work of adhesion, and this result is in agreement with the former experimental phenomenon [9]. In conclusion, a systematic analysis of a vesicle adhered to an elastic substrate was performed.

Our study addresses the ability of already established thalli of L. pulmonaria to survive and stay vital on trees retained at harvest (“life-boating”), i.e. dispersal aspects were not in focus. Nevertheless, colonization of new trees will be decisive for the species’ long-term persistence and thus is an essential aspect to investigate. Experiments

with diaspores of L. pulmonaria ( Scheidegger et al., 1995 and Hilmo selleck screening library et al., 2011) indicate that establishment, contrary to survival and growth, is hampered by light-exposed conditions, and establishment constraints in young forests have also been suggested by Gjerde et al. (2012). Further studies are needed to examine if habitat requirements indeed differ for different life-history stages in L. pulmonaria and other lichens. It might be surprising that no difference could be detected in either survival or vitality between transplants on aspens in groups and on scattered trees since tree groups could be expected to provide more semi-open conditions, beneficial to the lichen.

But, a tree group according to our criteria did not have to consist of more than four trees which means that the groups could be very small, and thus the difference to scattered trees was not pronounced. Further, several trees in groups had fallen at the inventory after 14 years, and a young forest stand had developed, leveling out differences in the environment surrounding scattered aspens and aspens in groups. Lack of natural young forests following fires in today’s European boreal forest landscapes GDC-0941 supplier could mask important occurrence patterns of species that today are viewed as confined to high forest ages; the few remaining intact forests are all old-growth. Recent research indicates that stand-replacing fires were less common and fire frequencies and intensities lower than earlier thought in N. Europe,

implying that there were usually numerous remnant trees in forests regenerating after fire (Kuuluvainen, 2009). It might be that such trees were important habitats for L. pulmonaria and other lichens. Thus, it can be discussed whether L. pulmonaria aminophylline is a true old-growth lichen or if it is an old-growth species in the current N. European forest landscapes since natural early-growth forests are lacking. Only in the so far unlogged forest landscapes of N. Russia in which natural fire dynamics still remain would it be possible to study the association of L. pulmonaria and other epiphytic lichens described as sensitive, to different successional stages after natural disturbance. The importance to biodiversity of old-growth structures in early successional stages is today increasingly highlighted in ecology and conservation ( Kouki et al., 2004 and Swanson et al., 2011).

, 2009 and Donald, 2004). Although it

has often been suggested that intensive monocultures raise productivity and therefore reduce the amount of forested land that needs to be cut for crop cultivation, there are few quantitative data to support Pifithrin-�� clinical trial the notion that ‘land sparing’ is more effective than ‘land sharing’ as a conservation strategy (Balmford et al., 2012 and Tscharntke et al., 2012). To the extent that ‘land sparing’ can play a role, genetic selection of more productive cultivars of commodity crops clearly has a part to play. More important, however, is an emphasis on mixed farmland production regimes that combine tree commodities with fruit trees, staple crops and/or vegetables, etc., which maintain commodity yields and promote resilience (Clough et al., 2011). In the right circumstances, the integration of tree commodity crops with other farmland

trees and in forest mosaics can increase commodity production (e.g., see the case of coffee; Ricketts et al., 2004 and Priess et al., 2007). Mixed production regimes are much more amenable for some Raf inhibitor commodities (such as coffee and cocoa; SCI, 2013) than for others (such as palm oil; Donald, 2004). One option being promoted in West Africa, for example, is to incorporate ‘new’ tree commodity crops such as allanblackia, a tree whose seed yields edible oil with significant potential in the global food market, with cocoa production (Jamnadass et al., 2010). When allanblackia trees have matured, farmers’ incomes will be distributed more evenly through the year, as allanblackia and cocoa have different production seasons (Novella Africa, 2013). To support diverse production systems, genetic selection for commodity crop cultivars that do well under shade may be of particular importance (Mohan Jain and Reverse transcriptase Priyadarshan, 2009). This may require returning to wild genetic resources still found in shaded, mixed-species forest habitats. Not only may mixed production systems be more

resilient ecologically, but they may support more resilient food systems. Buying food using the income received from a single commodity crop can lead to food insecurity for farm households when payments are one-off, delayed or unpredictable in value, and as a result tree commodity crops are sometimes viewed sceptically within agricultural production-based strategies to improve nutrition (FAO, 2012). For farmers who have too little land to cultivate enough food to meet their needs, however, incomes from tree commodity crops may be the only way to obtain sufficient food (Arnold, 1990). Tree-based production systems are often promoted because of their perceived biological, economic and social resilience in the context of anthropogenic climate change and other production challenges (Alfaro et al., 2014, this special issue; Steffan-Dewenter et al., 2007 and Thorlakson and Neufeldt, 2012).

phylotree.org; Build 16; [8]). The random match probability was calculated as sum of squares of the haplotype frequencies [9]. Genetic diversity indices were calculated using the ARLEQUIN software (Version 3.5) [10]. C-Stretch length variants in HVS-I (around 16,193), HVS-II (around 309) and HVS-III (around 573) were ignored for calculating random match probabilities and genetic diversity indices. The

mtDNA control region sequence analysis in three Macedonian ethnic groups consisting of 444 individuals (148 Albanians, 150 Turks and 146 Romanies) showed 108 different haplotypes (73%) in Albanians, 100 (66.7%) in Turks and 64 (43.8%) in Romanies, respectively (Tables 1 and S1). Thereof, 87 (80.6%), 74 (74%) and 42 (65.6%) were unique and haplotype diversity was 0.983, 0.986 and 0.966 respectively (Table 1). AMOVA was performed taking into consideration the following published selleck chemicals datasets: Macedonia [1], Greece [11], Cyprus [11], Hungarian Ashkenazi [12], Hungarian Baranya Romany [13], Hungarians from Budapest [13], Romanian Csango [14] and Romanian Szekely [14]. Fst comparison, pairwise differences and shared haplotypes are given in ESM 1. The distribution of observed lineages differed between the three investigated populations

(Table selleck compound 2). Albanians showed a relatively high abundance of hg H12 lineages (8.8%) that were generally rare elsewhere, 1.3% in northern Greeks [11] and 3% in Orthodox Macedonians [1]. Romanies showed high frequencies of hgs H7a1a (10.3%) and M5a1 (13.7%) that is common in the South Asian phylogeny [15]. This emphasizes the requirement of regional databases when assessing haplotype frequencies in a forensic context. The authors would like to thank all volunteers that participated in this study. This work leading to these results has received funding either from the European Union Seventh Framework

Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement n° 285487 (EUROFORGEN-NoE) and was in part supported by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF) [P22880-B12]. Also, we would like to thank colleagues from Macedonia, especially to d-r Agim Ramadani and Sefedin Biljali for their help during samples collection. “
“Humans shed about 100 head hairs daily, mostly during hair grooming. A struggle involving hair pulling, however, can greatly accelerate hair loss. Therefore, head hairs from the victim or from the putative offender are frequently found at crime scenes, especially crimes of violence [1], [2] and [3]. Short Tandem Repeat (STR) analysis of the hair root can identify the donor of the hair. In many forensic cases however, no reportable STR profiles are obtained from hairs collected at crime scenes [4] and [5], which can be explained by the growth phase of the hair.

, 2000). Amplicons were purified using the Illustra GFX PCR DNA and Gel Band Purification kit (GE Healthcare, São Paulo, Brazil) and sequenced by the Genomics Unit of the Instituto de Biofisica Carlos selleck screening library Chagas Filho-UFRJ. GenBank accession numbers for CTGV and VACV-IOC are JX024889 and JX024890, respectively. Multiple alignment of the predicted amino acid sequences of F13L orthologs from different orthopoxviruses was generated by BioEdit v. 5.0.9. Virus species and Genbank accession numbers are as follows: VACV-WR (NC_006998); Cowpox-Brighton Red (CPXV-BR; NC_003663);

vaccinia virus-Lister (VACV-lst; AY678276); VACV-MVA (U94848); VACV-LC16m8 (AY678275); VACV-Copenhagen (VACV-Cop; M35027); monkeypox virus-Liberia 1970 (MPXV-LBR70; DQ011156); horsepoxvirus MNR-76 (HSPV; DQ792504); variola virus-Garcia 1966 (VARV-GAR66; Y16780); VARV-Banglsdesh-1974 (VARV-BGL74; DQ441422); ectromelia virus-Naval (ECTV-NAV; (PBR, 2012)); taterapox virus (TATV; NC_008291); camelpox virus (CMLV; AY009089). VACV-WR was used to construct a virus recombinant containing the D217N amino acid substitution in the F13L gene. Site directed mutagenesis was performed using the QuikChange II Site-Directed Mutagenesis Kit (Stratagene, CA) with primers TSA HDAC F13L-D21N-F (5′-TTG

GGA TAT TCT AGA AAT CTA GAT ACC GAT-3′) and F13L-D217N-R (5′-ATC GGT ATC TAG ATT TCT AGA ATA TCC CAA-3′) and plasmid pWR-F13L, that contains the F13L gene from VACV-WR cloned into plasmid pCR2.1. The DNA from the recombinant plasmid OSBPL9 was sequenced to confirm the presence of the D217N mutation. The F13L gene containing the D217N mutation and flanking DNA was PCR amplified using a Platinum PCR SuperMix High Fidelity PCR kit (Life Technologies, OR) and recombinant

plasmid DNA with primers, CB129 (5′-GCG ATA TAG CCG ATG ATA TTC-3′) and Vac3981 (5′-CAT CCA TCC AAA TAA CCC TAG-3′). The PCR assay conditions were 30 cycles at 94 °C for 20 s, 55 °C for 20 s, and 68 °C for 2 min and the resulting PCR amplicon was purified using a PCR purification kit (Qiagen, CA). BSC-40 cells were seeded into 6-well plates containing 7.5 × 104 cells/well in 2 ml of growth media and the next day were infected with 0.1 PFU/cell of vvWR-GFP-F13L which contains the GFP gene in place of the F13L coding sequences (Chen et al., 2009). Following infection, the cells were transfected with 500 ng of the PCR product encoding the mutated F13L gene using lipofectamine with Opti-MEM media (Life Technologies, OR). The next day the cells were collected by scraping into 0.5 ml PBS and lysed by repeated freeze–thaw cycles and −80 °C and 37 °C, respectively. The virus suspension was centrifuged at 1000g for 10 min at 4 °C to remove cell debris. The virus suspension was titered by plaque assay on fresh BSC-40 monolayers using a 1% methylcellulose overlay. Plaques identified by microscopy that did not exhibit green fluorescence were isolated and expanded in BSC-40 monolayers seeded in a 24-well plate.

, 2013), resulting in simultaneous land loss and emergence. The lower reach is aggrading, likely largely due to sediment trapping behind Lock and Dam 6 and in the vicinity of wing and closing dikes. This pattern of closely proximal or overlapping downstream–upstream dam effects likely occurs throughout the UMRS and

other multiply dammed large river systems (Skalak et al., 2013), though the processes by which reservoirs interact may vary widely depending on the nature of the river and its dams. A downstream-propagating trend of emergence can be observed in pool wide datasets. In 1975–1989 cut and fill analysis, emergence is greatest in the middle reach (Fig. 3). By 2000–2010, the majority of land emerged in the lower reach of Pool 6. This Alectinib downstream migration of land development may be the terrestrial expression of a sediment wedge resulting from impoundment of the river, similar to the progradation of a delta in a single reservoir. Aggradation rates in the lower pool (Table 4) suggest that is not downstream progradation of high-deposition rates. Instead, later emergence of land is a result of greater subaqueous selleck chemicals llc accommodation space in the lower pool following impoundment. Thus, effects of the Lock and Dam system on sedimentation

and land emergence must be considered in terms of accommodation space rather than simple reservoir delta building. In important ways, historical dynamics of LP6 have been substantially different than those observed in other pools in the UMRS, where islands are disappearing and substantial investments are being made in restoration (Eckblad et al., 1977, Collins and Knox, 2003, Theis and Knox, 2003 and O’Donnell and Galat, 2007). Notably, new islands are emerging and growing within the lower pool, resulting in a 25% increase in land area in LP6 since 1940. These Casein kinase 1 islands are not entirely re-establishing a pre-Lock and Dam planform, with spatial patterns of aggradation and erosion altered by engineered structures. Mid-channel features are developing

without direct management or restoration efforts and appear to be self-sustaining within the pool’s present hydraulic context. Examining the context in which islands emerged in LP6 may reveal controls on island regeneration that may be applicable in other large, engineered rivers. Discharge variability, sediment supply, flow obstructions, deposition and erosion control island emergence and longevity in braided rivers (Osterkamp, 1998, Gurnell et al., 2001 and Kiss and Sipos, 2007), and each of these factors can be evaluated in LP6 relative to other Pools 5–9 of the UMRS, where island erosion is predicted to continue (Theiling et al., 2000). Historical observations suggest that island emergence and growth follows large floods (Fremling et al., 1973), but the hydrologic history of all UMRS pools is similar, suggesting that discharge variability is not the primary driver of LP6′s exceptional island growth.

, 2006), and the chronological relationship between human colonization and megafaunal extinctions remains controversial (Field et al., 2013). The late Quaternary extinctions of continental megafauna will continue to be debated, but extinctions and other ecological impacts on island ecosystems around the world shortly after click here initial human colonization

are much more clearly anthropogenic in origin (see Rick et al., 2013). These extinctions resulted from direct human hunting, anthropogenic burning and landscape clearing, and the translocation of new plants and animals. Some of the most famous and well-documented of these extinctions come from Madagascar, New Zealand, and other Pacific Islands. In Madagascar, a wide range of megafauna went extinct after human colonization ca. 2300 years ago (Burney et al., 2004). Pygmy hippos, flightless elephant birds, giant tortoises, and large lemurs may have overlapped with humans for a millennium or more, but each went extinct due to human hunting or habitat disturbance. Burney et al. (2003) identified proxy evidence for population decreases of megafauna within a few centuries of human arrival by tracking declines in Sporormiella spp., dung-fungus spores that grow primarily on large mammal dung. This was followed by dramatic increases of Sporormiella spp.

after the introduction of domesticated cattle a millennium later. Shortly after the Maori colonization of New Zealand roughly 1000 years ago, at least eleven species of large, flightless landbirds (moas), along with numerous smaller bird species, went selleck chemicals llc extinct (Diamond, 1989, Fleming, 1962, Grayson, 2001 and Olson and James, 1984). Moa butchery and processing sites are abundant and well-documented in the archeological record (Anderson, 1983 and Anderson, 1989) and recent radiocarbon dating and population modeling suggests that their disappearance occurred within 100

years of first human arrival (Holdaway and Jacomb, 2000). Landbirds across Oceania suffered a similar fate beginning about 3500 years ago as Lapita peoples and later Polynesians colonized the vast Pacific. Thirteen of 17 landbird species went extinct shortly after human arrival on Mangaia in the Cook Islands (Steadman and Kirch, 1990), for example, five of nine on Henderson Island (Wragg and Weisler, 1994), seven of Verteporfin 10 on Tahuata in the Marquesas (Steadman and Rollett, 1996), 10 of 15 on Huahine in the Society Islands (Steadman, 1997), and six of six on Easter Island (Steadman, 1995) (Table 4). In the Hawaiian Islands, more than 50% of the native avifauna went extinct after Polynesian colonization but before Caption Cook and European arrival (Steadman, 2006). These extinctions likely resulted from a complex mix of human hunting, anthropogenic fire, deforestation and other habitat destruction, and the introduction of domesticated animals (pigs, dogs, and chickens) and stowaways (rats).

A whole inactivated Pneumococcus vaccine was developed in 1911, long before the importance of type-specific immunity was known. It is now understood that the serotypic variations in Pneumococci make developing an effective vaccine extremely challenging (see Chapter 2 – Vaccine Selleck PLX-4720 immunology and Chapter 3 – Vaccine antigens). In the late 1940s, a multivalent (4–6 types) capsular

polysaccharide vaccine was developed; however, this was not used extensively as antibiotic therapy for pneumococcal infections became widely available at the same time. During the 1970s and 1980s, several polyvalent bacterial vaccines consisting of purified capsular polysaccharides were developed as even though antibiotics were available, pneumococcal infections remained common and severe. Meningococcal polysaccharide group A and C vaccines were launched at the same time. However,

polysaccharide vaccines did not provide an adequate stimulus to the immature immune systems of children younger than 2 years of age, and older children and adults required revaccination every 3–5 years because of the limited duration of immunity. The preparation of vaccines by conjugation of polysaccharides to a protein carrier, typically tetanus or diphtheria toxoid, was introduced www.selleckchem.com/products/gw3965.html to Chloroambucil overcome poor immunogenicity. The first 7-valent conjugated pneumococcus vaccine was developed in the 1990s followed in the 2000s by two formulations containing additional serotypes. Several group C meningococcal conjugates with either diphtheria or tetanus toxoid were developed in the 1990s. A-, C-, W- and Y-type polysaccharide-conjugated vaccines were then licensed in 2005. These provide a longer duration of immunity than the unconjugated polysaccharide vaccines,

establish adequate immune memory and provide immune protection to those younger than 2 years of age. In 1892, Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib), the most common cause of invasive bacterial disease, was isolated. In the 1930s, the role of the Hib polysaccharide capsule as a virulence factor in the disease was identified. The first attempts to develop an Hib vaccine started in the 1970s and a vaccine was licensed in 1985. As with other polysaccharide vaccines, this vaccine had limited immunogenicity and was not effective in children younger than 18 months. The first conjugated Hib vaccine, licensed in 1987, had excellent efficacy and immunogenicity, even in infants. Several Hib vaccines were licensed in the early 1990s and their widespread use has eliminated much of the Hib disease in Western countries.

The entire time series or the part of it that corresponds to trends or oscillatory modes

can be reconstructed by using linear combinations of principal components and Protein Tyrosine Kinase inhibitor eigenvectors, as: equation(3) Xi=X(iΔt)=1M∑k=1M∑i+j=s[(PC)k(i)][(E)k(j)]where k is the set of T-EOFs on which reconstruction is based. The basic idea in SSA is simple: a PCA is done with the variables analyzed being lagged versions of a single time series variable. We construct an input matrix that contains the “lagged” time series X*(iΔt) where i = 1, …., N are the lags and Δ is the time increment (the “size” of the lag). The lagged covariance matrix Cij (Eq. (2)) contains covariances between the time series at all possible combinations of lags. The T-PCs obtained by the decomposition of Cij can be interpreted as moving averages of the original time series, the averages being weighted by the coordinates of the T-EOFs. The decomposition in PCs given in Eq. (3) allows us to identify the different hidden processes in the signal X*(iΔt). The first T-PCs will be naturally associated with deterministic mechanisms that account for most of the variance of the series. The remaining T-PCs correspond to information that cannot be separated from the background noise. In this paper, the spatiotemporal behavior of periods of excess and water deficit

was determined through a PCA applied to the fields of SPI at different time scales.

The vulnerability XL184 concentration of the region to EPE was determined by defining the spatial extent of these periods by means of the percentage of grid points in wet or dry conditions for each month of the time series. SSA was applied to the time series of interest looking for significant signals in the LFB (trends or oscillatory modes). PCA was applied to the field of SPIn (t) (n = 6, 12 and 18 month) to define the spatial distribution of aij correlations for SPI time series at each grid point with the principal components L-gulonolactone oxidase PCj (j = 1, 2, 3). The temporal behavior of the PCjn (t), j = 1, 2, 3; n = 6, 12 and 18 months series was determined by applying SSA, looking for low frequency signals in the LFB and using a window length M of 360 months (30 years). The first PC explained a high percentage of the total variance for all SPIn (t) time series analyzed (49.5%, 52.7% and 54.7% for n   = 6, 12 and 18 month, respectively). Correlation of PC1n (t) with SPI time series at each grid point, expressed by a  i1, resulted in positive values in all cases, proving to be the component that is closest related with variables (SPI time series). We determined the correlation of the PC1n with each SPI spatial average time series in the region ( SPIn (t)¯, n = 6, 12 and 18 months). The obtained coefficients in all cases were close to 0.999, indicating that the average areal behavior of SPI fields could be explained by PC1n (t) series.