The effects of maternal care on developing DA pathways and reward

The effects of maternal care on developing DA pathways and reward-directed behavior of female offspring that we have observed may play a critical role in the behavioral transmission of maternal LG from mother to daughter, and account for individual differences in the mesolimbic DA system. “
“In rat brain, the detection and integration of chemosensory and neural signals are achieved, inter alia, by the median preoptic

nucleus (MnPO) during a disturbance of the hydromineral balance. This is allowed through selleck chemicals the presence of the sodium (Na+) sensor neurons. Interestingly, enkephalins and mu-opioid receptors (μ-ORs) are known for their role in ingestive behaviors and have previously been shown to regulate the excitability of MnPO neurons following a single Na+ depletion. However, little is known about the role of these μ-ORs in the response enhancement following repeated Na+ challenge. Therefore, we used whole-cell recordings in acute brain slices to determine neuronal plasticity in the electrical properties of the MnPO Na+ sensor-specific

check details neuronal population following multiple Na+ depletions. Our results show that the population of Na+ sensor neurons was represented by 80% of MnPO neurons after a single Na+ depletion and was reduced after three Na+ depletions. Interestingly, the subpopulation of Na+ sensors responding to D-Ala2,N-MePhe4,Gly-ol-enkephalin (DAMGO), a specific μ-OR agonist, represented 11% of MnPO neurons after a single Na+ depletion and the population doubled after three Na+ depletions. Moreover, Na+ sensor neurons displayed modifications in the discharge pattern distribution and shape of

calcium action potentials after three Na+ depletions but these changes did not occur in Na+ sensors responding to DAMGO. Thus, the reinforced μ-OR functionality in Na+ sensors might take place to control the neuronal hyperexcitability and this plasticity in opioid-sensitive and Na+ detection MnPO networks might sustain Nutlin-3 order the enhanced salt ingestion induced by repeated exposure to Na+ depletion. “
“Pavlovian cues [conditioned stimulus (CS+)] often trigger intense motivation to pursue and consume related reward [unconditioned stimulus (UCS)]. But cues do not always trigger the same intensity of motivation. Encountering a reward cue can be more tempting on some occasions than on others. What makes the same cue trigger more intense motivation to pursue reward on a particular encounter? The answer may be the level of incentive salience (‘wanting’) that is dynamically generated by mesocorticolimbic brain systems, influenced especially by dopamine and opioid neurotransmission in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) at that moment.

None of the samples was positive for C difficile Most

s

None of the samples was positive for C. difficile. Most

samples were taken from young birds (n=440, 94.6%) on their first migration (Table 1). The change from individual to pooled culture was performed to accommodate a larger population sample in this study after negative initial culture results on individual samples. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first report on assessment of the level of colonization of migrating passerine birds with C. difficile, and the first report of complete lack of detection of C. difficile in an ICG-001 animal population. The incidence of C. difficile colonization in samples from this study was expected to be similar to or smaller than those in other animal species epidemiological studies. However, most animals studied to date were subject to intensive breeding where the incidence of C. difficile colonization is traditionally high (Borriello et al., 1983; Simango, 2006; Rodriguez-Palacios et al., 2007b; Pirs et al., 2008; Simango & Mwakurudza, 2008; Avbersek et al., 2009; Weese et al., 2010). More than 80% of passerine birds are juvenile on an autumn migration to south (Jakubas

& Wojczulanis-Jakubas, 2010). Accordingly, most samples taken in this study were from juvenile birds (94.6%). Clostridium difficile colonization among different age groups can decrease substantially over time, which is documented in calves, piglets, and chickens (Rodriguez-Palacios et al., 2007b; Zidaric et al., 2008; buy KU-57788 Alvarez-Perez et al., 2009; Norman et al., 2009). In a single poultry farm in Slovenia, 100% of fecal samples from 2-week-old birds were culture positive. The colonization rate decreased to 71.4% in 14 weeks old birds, and to 40.9% in 18-week-old birds, which indicated a significant age-related variation (Zidaric et al., 2008). Similar findings were evident in a report of an outbreak of a fatal C. difficile necrotizing enteritis, which selectively affected only juvenile captive ostriches (Struthio camelus) on a

single farm (Frazier et al., 1993). In the present study, most samples Farnesyltransferase were taken from birds that were young and on their first migration, which would be just after the peak of their C. difficile colonization (Zidaric et al., 2008; Weese, 2010). Therefore, negative cultures for C. difficile were a surprising discovery, especially because C. difficile in humans and animals is reported from the migration destinations of both the north and south hemisphere (Simango, 2006; Simango & Mwakurudza, 2008; Weese, 2010). The results of this study indicate that migrating passerine birds in Europe and their southern migratory locations are unlikely to serve as a reservoir or a carrier of C. difficile. Similar results would not be expected in birds that come in closer contact with humans or dwell in habitats intensively cultivated by humans. Clostridium difficile has been found in >60% of rivers and water samples (Zidaric et al.

Phagocytosis

Phagocytosis Gefitinib supplier receptors such as CD14, Fcγ receptor II and the mannose receptor can recognize a wide range of bacteria, and ligand binding to this receptor can trigger cytokine production (Shibata et al., 1997; Yamamoto et al., 1997). As IL-12 is

produced by macrophages, it is not surprising that it is not blocked by TLR2 antibodies, but considerably affected by blocking phagocytosis. However, the fact that blocking phagocytosis blocked TNFα and IL-10 production is probably because TLR2 are recruited to phagosomes and are active after internalization. This has been observed in human DCs and macrophages (Underhill & Ozinsky, 2002). Intracellular nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors such as NOD1 and NOD2 recognize the muramyl dipeptide of gram-positive bacteria and may play a role as well. Zeuthen et al. (2008), using DC from NOD2 receptor and TLR2 knockout mice, showed that these receptors had different effects on the production of different cytokines in DCs stimulated with lactobacilli.

The differential cytokine production of different strains and preparations of lactobacilli may indicate that these bacteria/preparations may be suited for different therapeutic interventions. An ability to secrete IL-12 may be of benefit in allergic diseases, as IL-12 can reduce serum IgE levels in mice (Sashihara et al., 2006), while IL-10 can aid in tolerization of exogenous antigens. Selleck Cabozantinib Thus, live or lyophilized L. bulgaricus that produces IL-12 and IL-10 or lyophilized L. casei would be considerably beneficial in this context while lyophilized L. rhamnosus with its ability to induce IL-10 secretion, but low induction of IL-12, may be beneficial in the reduction of inflammation. The ability of these strains, whether live or lyophilized, to induce TNFα may explain their antitumor properties. The order of efficacy of the three strains for cancer therapy would be live L. casei>L. rhamnosus>L. bulgaricus. This needs to be confirmed in animal

cancer models. This work was made possible by a grant from the Academic Research Fund of National University of Singapore. We would like to thank Dr Linda Wang for www.selleck.co.jp/products/Gefitinib.html her advice on the TLR blocking experiments. “
“The appendices can be found on the BHIVA website (http://www.bhiva.org/TreatmentofHIV1_2012.aspx) Appendix 1 Summary modified GRADE system Appendix 2 Literature search A2.1 Questions and PICO criteria A2.2 Search protocols Appendix 3 GRADE tables A3.1 Choice of nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor backbone A3.2 Choice of third agent A3.3 Protease inhibitor monotherapy “
“There are several reported cases of vertically infected children presenting with advanced HIV infection in the UK. The children of women with HIV infection are at increased risk of being infected. There are few data available on the number of such children that are yet to be tested for HIV.

Under different conditions, for example longer incubation times a

Under different conditions, for example longer incubation times and anaerobic conditions, nitrite production has been found in some BCG strains

(Weber et al., 2000; Sohaskey & Wayne, 2003; Stermann et al., 2003; Sohaskey & Modesti, 2009). Therefore, different incubation times could explain the discrepancy observed between nitrate reductase test results and intercellular survival. Nitrate reductase activity is not the sole explanation, but we believe it is partly responsible for the survival in host cells, as shown in previous reports (Weber et al., 2000; Sohaskey, 2008) and the present study. Heterogeneity of niacin accumulation was also observed among BCG substrains (Table 1). Recycling of NAD favours the latent infection of M. tuberculosis (Boshoff et al., 2008), and NAD-quinoline reductase is responsible for resistance

to oxidative stress (Akhtar et al., 2006). These reports suggest that the BTK assay find more activity of NAD metabolism is associated with the survival of BCG in macrophages or host cells. Whether the long or short survival of BCG in host cells favours the effectiveness of BCG has not been determined. However, the different characteristics of BCG substrains as reported here provide the basic information for further investigation of immunological characteristics and evaluation. Parker et al. (2007) purified and characterized MPLA. MPLA is associated with cutinase, a serine esterase and catalyses the hydrolysis of lipids including Tween 80. MPLA activity was observed not only in pathogenic M. tuberculosis, but also in BCG-Pasteur. BCG-Pasteur

was weakly positive for Tween 80 hydrolysis (Table 1). In fact, eight of the 14 substrains, namely BCG-Moreau, -Sweden, -Danish, -Connaught, -Montreal, -Phipps, -Australia and -Pasteur, were weakly positive. Mycobacteria are known to use this fatty acid as carbon source at the dormant stage. Therefore, this activity could contribute to survival under starvation conditions during dormancy (Jackson et al., 1989; Deb et al., 17-DMAG (Alvespimycin) HCl 2009). All BCG strains belong to the low-catalase group, although there were variations in the height of bubble column among them (Table 1). It was over 10 mm in BCG-Japan (14.8 mm) and -Birkhaug (11.8 mm) (Table 1). No mutation in the coding region of the ahpC gene among was observed among the substrains (data not shown). The differences between transcription of the genes and the activities have not yet been analysed. Catalase (katG) and peroxidase (ahpC) activities of M. tuberculosis are related to resistance to oxidative killing in human monocytes in vitro (Manca et al., 1999). The expression of katG is partially regulated by ferric uptake regulators (fur), and contributes to the virulence of M. tuberculosis (Lucarelli et al., 2008). Resistance to hydrogen peroxide of M. bovis, BCG-Russia and -Japan was higher than that of other BCG substrains (Fig. 1). This resistance relates well to survival in host cells, THP-1 and BMMs (Fig. 1).

A significant difference

A significant difference find more was considered to exist when the P-value was <0.05. TNFα, IL-12 and IL-10 were evaluated because of the important role they play in inflammation and cancer therapy. Tanigawa et al. (2000) showed that draining lymph node cells treated with TNFα induced greater antitumor responses in tumor-bearing mice when administered with anti-IL-10 therapy,

thus highlighting the inter-relationship of these cytokines. Lactobacilli were placed in coculture with splenocytes for 6, 24, 48 and 72 h. C57BL/6 mice are regarded as more likely to induce Th1 responses, while BALB/c mice are more Th2 like. Therefore, we also compared the responses induced by the lactobacilli using splenocytes from these two www.selleckchem.com/products/ipilimumab.html mouse strains. In splenocytes isolated from C57BL/6, all three species of lactobacilli tested induced a marked increase in TNFα compared with control (L. bulgaricus>L. rhamnosus>L. casei) (P<0.001) (Fig. 1a). Both L. bulgaricus and L. rhamnosus induced more IL-10 secretion (P<0.05) compared with control splenocytes with L. bulgaricus>L. rhamnosus (Fig. 1c). However, only L. bulgaricus induced a significant increase in IL-12p40 production (P<0.01) (Fig. 1e) while L. casei suppressed IL-12p40 secretion. Neither IL-4 nor IFNγ was detected. When the three lactobacilli strains were incubated with BALB/c splenocytes, only L. bulgaricus induced the significant

production of all three cytokines (P<0.001) Tenofovir concentration and L. rhamnosus and L. casei suppressed IL-12p40 production (P<0.05) (Fig. 1b, d and f). Previous studies have also reported the differential proinflammatory

activity of Lactobacillus strains (Tejada-Simon & Pestka, 1999; Maassen et al., 2000). Lactic acid bacteria possess molecules such as lectins or teichoic acids, which can participate in bacterial adhesion (de Ambrosini et al., 1996), and a variation in these lipoteichoic acids results in significant differences in proinflammatory cytokine production (Grangette et al., 2005). A differential response in cytokine production was observed in C57BL/6 and BALB/c splenocytes exposed to L. rhamnosus and L. casei strains but not L. bulgaricus. This differential response is unlikely to be due to differences in receptor expression, but could indicate qualitative differences in the recognition of Lactobacillus strains probably due to difference in their cell wall components. Lyophilization is important for the long-term storage and stability of bacterial preparations for both clinical therapy and the food industry. Matsuguchi et al. (2003) reported that the cell wall fraction of L. casei induced less TNFα production compared with the protoplast fraction. The stress of lyophilization may cause bacterial membrane disruption; may change the architecture of the cell wall; may affect the integrity of membrane proteins as well as cause the release of cytoplasmic components.

A significant difference

A significant difference RAD001 supplier was considered to exist when the P-value was <0.05. TNFα, IL-12 and IL-10 were evaluated because of the important role they play in inflammation and cancer therapy. Tanigawa et al. (2000) showed that draining lymph node cells treated with TNFα induced greater antitumor responses in tumor-bearing mice when administered with anti-IL-10 therapy,

thus highlighting the inter-relationship of these cytokines. Lactobacilli were placed in coculture with splenocytes for 6, 24, 48 and 72 h. C57BL/6 mice are regarded as more likely to induce Th1 responses, while BALB/c mice are more Th2 like. Therefore, we also compared the responses induced by the lactobacilli using splenocytes from these two EGFR inhibitor mouse strains. In splenocytes isolated from C57BL/6, all three species of lactobacilli tested induced a marked increase in TNFα compared with control (L. bulgaricus>L. rhamnosus>L. casei) (P<0.001) (Fig. 1a). Both L. bulgaricus and L. rhamnosus induced more IL-10 secretion (P<0.05) compared with control splenocytes with L. bulgaricus>L. rhamnosus (Fig. 1c). However, only L. bulgaricus induced a significant increase in IL-12p40 production (P<0.01) (Fig. 1e) while L. casei suppressed IL-12p40 secretion. Neither IL-4 nor IFNγ was detected. When the three lactobacilli strains were incubated with BALB/c splenocytes, only L. bulgaricus induced the significant

production of all three cytokines (P<0.001) C-X-C chemokine receptor type 7 (CXCR-7) and L. rhamnosus and L. casei suppressed IL-12p40 production (P<0.05) (Fig. 1b, d and f). Previous studies have also reported the differential proinflammatory

activity of Lactobacillus strains (Tejada-Simon & Pestka, 1999; Maassen et al., 2000). Lactic acid bacteria possess molecules such as lectins or teichoic acids, which can participate in bacterial adhesion (de Ambrosini et al., 1996), and a variation in these lipoteichoic acids results in significant differences in proinflammatory cytokine production (Grangette et al., 2005). A differential response in cytokine production was observed in C57BL/6 and BALB/c splenocytes exposed to L. rhamnosus and L. casei strains but not L. bulgaricus. This differential response is unlikely to be due to differences in receptor expression, but could indicate qualitative differences in the recognition of Lactobacillus strains probably due to difference in their cell wall components. Lyophilization is important for the long-term storage and stability of bacterial preparations for both clinical therapy and the food industry. Matsuguchi et al. (2003) reported that the cell wall fraction of L. casei induced less TNFα production compared with the protoplast fraction. The stress of lyophilization may cause bacterial membrane disruption; may change the architecture of the cell wall; may affect the integrity of membrane proteins as well as cause the release of cytoplasmic components.

The significant correlates of unintended pregnancy after HIV diag

The significant correlates of unintended pregnancy after HIV diagnosis in our multivariable model were never being married and having given birth to no more than one child. No other studies that we identified assessed correlates of unintended pregnancies in HIV-positive women. Understanding the sociodemographic correlates of unintended pregnancies is clinically important, allowing clinicians to target HIV-positive women at higher risk of unintended pregnancies. There were additional clinically significant sociodemographic correlates of unintended pregnancies

that Ontario clinicians may want to consider that lacked statistical significance because of a lack of power, including ethnic background, years in Canada, education level, HIV risk factor, and HBV or HCV coinfection. However, we assert that pregnancy planning, family planning and contraception discussion should be part of the standard discussion with VX-809 mw all HIV-positive women and probably also men. For all women, HIV-infected or not, unintended pregnancies are associated with increased risks of poor maternal and fetal outcomes and this is reason enough to discuss family and pregnancy DAPT planning [19]. In the setting of HIV care, it is imperative that issues related to antiretroviral and other drugs that could be teratogenic and the risk

of horizontal transmission to an uninfected sexual partner are discussed, considering the high rate of unintended pregnancies in this population [20]. Current therapeutic guidelines for first-line HIV

treatment recommend use of tenofovir, emtricitabine and efavirenz, which are co-formulated in a single pill taken once daily (Atripla®; Gilead Sciences Inc, Foster City, CA, USA) [21]. Although other first-line HIV treatment options are available, Atripla® is a popular regimen because of its low pill burden. However, efavirenz is known to be teratogenic, emphasizing the need to discuss pregnancy intentions and contraception as well as alternative treatment options with HIV-positive women of reproductive Ribonucleotide reductase age who are considering HIV treatment. Reducing the occurrence of unintended pregnancies among HIV-positive women may also reduce the occurrence of VPT. A recent Italian study compared 63 cases of VPT with 334 pregnancies not ending in a VPT among HIV-positive women. The authors found a significant correlation between unintended pregnancy and VPT (odds ratio 24.3; 95% CI 5.8–101.2), leading them to conclude that improved access to pregnancy planning in the context of HIV infection could reduce the occurrence of VPT. We also found a high rate of VPT in our cohort, with 47% reporting having had a VPT at some time in their life. A landmark piece by Wilcher and Cates [23] about reproductive choices for women living with HIV was recently published in the WHO Bulletin.

Medication history and previous experience with side effects had

Medication history and previous experience with side effects had a significant influence

on the higher behaviour score obtained. Conclusion  The survey has shown moderate results with regard to the knowledge of public regarding safety of medications, and there was evidence of under-estimating the risk of medications, especially CAMs. The misconceptions among the public, and inappropriate behaviour on drug safety-related aspects, is a concern which needs to be addressed in the interventions designed. “
“Introduction  The rapid emergence and Cyclopamine research buy exploding usage of social media (also called Web 2.0) present pharmacists with new professional, ethical and time management challenges. Objectives  To describe social media use among pharmacists in West Virginia, USA. Methods  A survey was administered during the West Virginia Pharmacist Association 102nd Annual Convention held in October 2009. The meeting participants were pharmacists practising in the different regions of

West Virginia. All conference attendees 17-AAG in vivo were eligible to participate. Results  The survey was completed by all 50 pharmacists in attendance, yielding a response rate of 100%. Social media use was found to be common among West Virginia pharmacists, with the most frequently used applications including: YouTube (74%), Wikipedia (72%), Facebook (50%), and blogs (26%). However, there were some tools that pharmacists barely used such as Bebo, Hi5, Flickr and Friendster. Given the widespread use of Facebook by respondent pharmacists, it is noteworthy that they indicated the main purposes for using it were for chatting, uploading pictures and keeping touch with friends rather than for professional and educational purposes. Discussion  Presently, pharmacists utilize social media primarily for personal purposes. As social media becomes more sophisticated and widely adopted in the healthcare arena, it is probable that pharmacists will also increasingly utilize it for professional and educational purposes. “
“To evaluate

the perceptions, expectations Niclosamide and experiences of physicians with regard to hospital-based pharmacists in the West Bank, Palestine. A self-administered questionnaire was distributed to 250 physicians practising in four general hospitals in the West Bank, Palestine. The main sections of the questionnaire comprised a series of statements pertaining to physicians’ perceptions, expectations and experiences with pharmacists. One hundred and fifty seven questionnaires were completed and returned (response rate, 62.8%). The majority of respondents were most comfortable with pharmacists detecting and preventing prescription errors (76.4%; 95% confidence interval (CI) 69.5–81.2%) and patient education (57.9%; CI 51.2–63.4%) but they were not comfortable with pharmacists suggesting the use of prescription medications to patients (56.7%; CI 49.8–62.4%). Most physicians (62.4%; CI 56.8–69.

Port doctors and health officers must be aware that ciguatera fis

Port doctors and health officers must be aware that ciguatera fish poisoning is a risk for seafarers traveling in tropical and subtropical areas. Stocking food from safe sources only, adequate training of ship cooks, and informing sailors about the risk of fishing in endemic areas are needed to prevent disease occurrence in seafarers in international traffic. The authors thank Dr rer. nat. Guido Westhoff, HSP inhibitor Leiter des Tropen-Aquarium Hagenbeck in Hamburg, Germany for identification of

the suspicious fish, and Dr Anja These, Nationales Referenzlabor für Marine Biotoxine, Bundesinstitut für Risikobewertung, Berlin for toxin analysis (National Reference Laboratory for the Monitoring of Marine Biotoxins at the Federal Institute for Risk Assessment in Berlin). The authors state they have no conflicts of interest to declare. “
“Dengue virus ( DENV) nonstructural protein 1 ( NS1) has been used as a novel diagnostic marker during the early phase of DENV infection. Presence of NS1 antigen was examined using 336 serum samples

obtained from 276 travelers returning to Japan from Asia, Central and South America, Pacific Islands, and Africa with dengue. Assay specificity was evaluated using 148 non-dengue samples. Positive rates among four DENV serotypes were 68%–89%. NS1 antigen Belnacasan manufacturer positive rates were at similar levels between primary infection and secondary infection. NS1 antigen positive rates were 88%–96% on days 1–5, 75%–100% on days 6–10, and 36–60% on ≥day 11. Positive rates using real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) were over 70% on days 1–5, but decreased thereafter. The results indicate that NS1 antigen positive rates were higher than those of RT-PCR during longer period of early phase in DENV infection. Thus, NS1 antigen ELISA is a useful

tool for confirming DENV infection in international travelers, when it is used in combination with anti-DENV IgM ELISA. Dengue virus (DENV) infection is a major health problem in tropical and subtropical regions. The disease is estimated to affect 50 million people annually worldwide.[1] It has been suggested that the spread of dengue epidemics in the present decade Metalloexopeptidase has been caused by increased international travel and urbanization.[2-4] Recently, DENV transmission has been documented in previously nonendemic areas, including Nepal, Bhutan, and France.[5-7] The number of imported dengue cases has also increased in nonendemic countries such as Japan, where there was more than a twofold increase in DENV cases from 92 in 2009 to 245 in 2010.[8] Infection with any of the four DENV serotypes causes a range of symptoms: from mild undifferentiated fever to the more severe and sometimes fatal, dengue hemorrhagic fever and dengue shock syndrome.[9-11] No specific therapeutics are available to treat the disease. Early disease confirmation is essential for clinical management as some patients’ symptoms change from mild to severe disease in a short period of time.

IRT0723) X-MW

and H-XJ contributed equally to this

IRT0723). X.-M.W.

and H.-X.J. contributed equally to this work. “
“Survival of Escherichia coli in food depends on its ability to adapt against encountered stress typically involving induction of stress response genes. In this study, the transcriptional induction of selected acid (cadA, speF) and salt (kdpA, proP, proW, otsA, betA) stress response genes was investigated among five E. coli strains, including three Shiga toxin-producing strains, exposed to sodium chloride or lactic acid selleck screening library stress. Transcriptional induction upon lactic acid stress exposure was similar in all but one E. coli strain, which lacked the lysine decarboxylase gene cadA. In response to sodium chloride stress exposure, proW and otsA

were similarly induced, while significant differences were observed between the E. coli strains Cabozantinib mw in induction of kdpA, proP and betA. The kdpA and betA genes were significantly induced in four and three strains, respectively, whereas one strain did not induce these genes. The proP gene was only induced in two E. coli strains. Interestingly, transcriptional induction differences in response to sodium chloride stress exposure were associated with survival phenotypes observed for the E. coli strains in cheese as the E. coli strain lacking significant induction in three salt stress response genes investigated also survived poorly compared to the other E. coli strains in cheese. “
“We present the 91 500 bp mitochondrial genome of the wood-degrading selleck chemical basidiomycete Trametes cingulata and compare it with the mitochondrial genomes of five additional Basidiomycota species. The Trametes mitochondrial genome encodes 15 proteins, 25 tRNAs and the small and large rRNAs. All of the genes, except one tRNA, are found on the same DNA strand.

Several additional ORFs have also been identified; however, their sequences have not been conserved across the species we compared and they show no similarity to any known gene, suggesting that they may not correspond to authentic genes. The presence of endonuclease-like sequences in introns suggests a mechanism that explains the diversity of mitochondrial genome sizes that are unrelated to the gene content. It is generally accepted that mitochondria have a monophyletic origin and represent an ancient symbiosis between a free-living Alphaproteobacterium and an autotrophic archebacterium (Gray & Doolittle, 1982; Martin & Muller, 1998). While most of the ancestral alphaproteobacterial genes have been lost or transferred to the nucleus, mitochondria usually maintain about 30–40 transcribed genes, although the number varies from 3 to 67 (Adams & Palmer, 2003). Mitochondrial genomes vary in size from about 20 kb in protozoa, fungi and animals to more than 200 kb in plants (Lang et al., 1999). Of the 70 fungal mitochondrial genomes available at NCBI (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genomes/GenomesGroup.