Settings: Ambulatory care centers typical of those where SSD patients are diagnosed and treated.

Patients: Adults (N = 22) with acquired, permanent SSD and no current use of any other SSD device.

Intervention: Continual daily wear of the new device for 6 months.

Main Outcome Measures: Comprehensive medical, audiologic, and dental measures; aided thresholds; Abbreviated Profile of Hearing Aid Benefit scores, and an SSD questionnaire.

Results: There were no related adverse events or changes in the medical or audiologic findings at the end of the trial compared with the beginning. There were no significant changes in

the mean aided thresholds (p > 0.01) or the mean dental measures (p > 0.05) at 3 or 6 months compared with pretrial measures. The mean Abbreviated Profile of Hearing Aid Benefit benefit scores showed improvement (p < 0.01) for the Background Noise, Reverberation, and Ease FRAX597 datasheet of Communication subscales and the Global scale at 3 and 6 months. The results of the SSD questionnaire indicated that the vast majority (>90%) of the subjects reported satisfaction and improvement in a variety of areas after wearing the device long term.

Conclusion: The SoundBite system is safe and continues to provide substantial benefit

for SSD patients with continual daily use over a 6-month period.”
“Physical properties of barley (Hordeum vulgare L) seeds were determined as a function of moisture content. Several properties were studied in the moisture range from 13.15 to 45.82% Bucladesine Others inhibitor dry basis, the length increased from 8.10 to 8.62 mm, the width from 3.42 to 3.74 mm, the thickness from 2.61 mm to 2.84 mm, the arithmetic and geometric diameter ACY-738 research buy of seeds from

4.71 to 5.07 mm and from 4.16 to 4.50 mm, respectively. Besides, the 1000-seed mass increased from 39.46 to 51.13g. the surface area increased from 54.60 to 63.79 mm(2), the porosity increased from 42.69% to 44.44%, the angle of repose increased from 18.18 degrees to 27.31 degrees, and the static coefficient of friction showed an increase of 60.17%, 38.41% and 59.35% for the surfaces of plywood, galvanized steel and aluminum, respectively. From the experimental determinations it could be observed that only the apparent and true density decreased from 699.38 to 647.04 kg m(-3) and from 1220.30 to 1164.62 kg m(-3) respectively. In the range of evaluated moisture, all these properties except length – showed moisture dependence according to linear relationships; the length exhibited a behavior of second-order polynomial. Finally, the sphericity behaves differently presenting a maximum of 53.15% for a moisture content of 35.29%. (c) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.”
“Age at menarche is closely related to scoliosis progression during adolescence.

More studies with other biopharmaceutical products are needed to strengthen the status of the minipig as an alternative model for immunotoxicity testing including immunogenicity.”
“Background. Recent studies have shown a strong relationship between testosterone levels and vasomotor actions. The aim of this study is to compare the elastic properties of the aorta in male patients with hypogonadism and eugonadal healthy control subjects. Method. A total of 22 male with Vorinostat in vitro hypogonadism (mean age: 35.2 +/- 9.5 years, mean disease duration: 5.3

+/- 1.8 years) and 25 age-, sex-and weight-matched eugonadal healthy subjects (mean age: 34.5 +/- 8.2 years) were enrolled in the study. Aortic stiffness (beta) index, aortic strain (AoS) and aortic distensibility (AoD) were calculated from the aortic diameters measured by transthoracic echocardiography and blood pressure obtained by sphygmomanometer. Results. The routinely performed echocardiographic parameters were similar HIF inhibitor between patient and control groups. There were significant differences between the control and patient groups in beta index (1.75 +/- 0.44 vs 2.68 +/- 1.72, p < 0.001), AoS (18.52 +/- 6.44 vs 12.35 +/-

3.88%, p < 0.001) and AoD (7.56 +/- 2.86 vs 3.96 +/- 1.24, 10(-6) cm(2)/dyn, p < 0.001). There were statistically significant positive correlations between the serum total testosterone level and AoD (r = 0.539, p < 0.001) and AoS (r = 0.372, p = 0.036); moreover, there was a negative

correlation between the serum total testosterone level and beta index (r = -0.462, p = 0.001). In multivariate analysis, serum total testosterone level was significantly related with AoD, AoS and beta index (respectively, RR = 2.88, p = 0.004; RR = 3.45, p = 0.001; RR = 2.64, p = 0.01). Conclusion. The study results showed that aortic elasticity was impaired in patients with hypogonadism. We also have demonstrated a statistically significant correlation between selleckchem aortic elastic properties and the serum total testosterone level.”
“Objective: Sex hormones and reproductive factors may be important for osteoarthritis (OA). The aim of this study was to describe the associations of parity, use of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) and oral contraceptives (OCs) with cartilage volume, cartilage defects and radiographic OA in a population-based sample of older women.

Design: Cross-sectional study of 489 women aged 50-80 years. Parity, use of HRT and OC was assessed by questionnaire; knee cartilage volume and defects by magnetic resonance imaging and knee joint space narrowing (JSN) and osteophytes by X-ray.

Results: Parity was associated with a deficit in total knee cartilage volume [adjusted beta = -0.69 ml, 95% confidence interval (CI) -1.34, -0.04]. Increasing parity was associated with decreasing cartilage volume in both the tibial compartment and total knee (both P trend <0.05).

25E-45 in the combined analysis and has been replicated in both the Die Deutsche Diabetes Dialyse Studie (4D study) and the Graz Endocrine Causes of Hypertension (GECOH) study.

Conclusions In our genome-wide association study, we identified 3 chromosomal regions significantly associated with serum homoarginine and another region with suggestive association, providing novel insights into the genetic regulation of homoarginine.”
“Background: A high consumption of fruit and vegetables is possibly associated with a decreased risk of colorectal see more cancer (CRC).

However, the findings to date are inconsistent.

Objective: We examined the relation between self-reported usual consumption of fruit and vegetables and the incidence of CRC.

Design: In the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC), 452,755 subjects (131,985 men and 320,770 women) completed a dietary questionnaire in 1992-2000 and were followed up for cancer incidence and mortality until 2006. A multivariate Cox proportional hazard model was used to estimate adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% CIs.

Results: After an

average follow-up of 8.8 y, 2,819 incident CRC cases were reported. Consumption of fruit and vegetables was inversely associated with CRC in a comparison of the highest with the lowest EPIC-wide quintile of JAK inhibitor consumption (HR: 0.86; 95% CI: 0.75, 1.00; P for trend 0.04), particularly with colon cancer risk (HR: 0.76; 95% CI: 0.63, 0.91; P for trend < 0.01). Only after exclusion of the first 2 y of follow-up were these findings corroborated by calibrated continuous analyses for a 100-g increase in consumption: HRs of 0.95 (95% CI: 0.91, 1.00; P 0.04) and 0.94 (95% CI: 0.89, 0.99; P = 0.02), respectively. The association between fruit and vegetable consumption and CRC risk was inverse in never and former smokers, but positive in current smokers. This modifying effect was found for fruit and vegetables combined selleck kinase inhibitor and for vegetables alone (P for interaction, 0.01 for both).

Conclusions: These findings suggest that a high consumption of fruit and vegetables is associated with a reduced

risk of CRC, especially of colon cancer. This effect may depend on smoking status. Am J Clin Nutr 2009;89:1441-52.”
“Monocyclopentadienyl trialkoxy compounds of zirconium and hafnium [CpZr(OR)(3) and CpHf(OR)(3)], which cannot be prepared by earlier methods, are synthesized in situ by reacting bis(cyclopentadienyl) magnesium with Zirconium tetraalkoxides [Zr(OR)(4)] and with hafnium tetraalkoxides [Hf(OR)(4)], respectively. The generation of CpZr(OR)(3) and CpHf(OR)(3) compounds involves a highly effective cyclopentadienyl ligand (Cp) transfer reaction from the Cp ligand of bis(cyclopentadienyl) magnesium to Group 4 metal alkoxides. The utilization of CpZr(OR)(3) and CpHf(OR)(3) compounds as catalyst precursors for mediating alpha-olefin polymerizations was carefully investigated.

When compared to self-reported household income, overall and weighted Kappas showed stronger agreement with residential value index (weighted Kappa = 0.37, 95% CI: 0.32, 0.42) than with census income (weighted Kappa = 0.25, 95% CI: 0.20, 0.30).

Conclusions: A residential value index may provide a measure of material circumstances that is closer to self-reported household income than the commonly used census income. Each indicator presents advantages and disadvantages, and their

choice may depend on study objectives and feasibility.”
“Our aim was to evaluate the application of piezoelectric decortication in periodontally accelerated osteogenic orthodontics LDK378 datasheet (PAOO). One hundred fifty-six patients with severe skeletal malocclusions were enrolled in this study. Ultrasonic decortications were performed in 187 labial or lingual PAOO of the maxillary and mandibular anterior teeth. Orthodontic decompensation started from the fifth day after operation. All patients healed uneventfully and no severe periodontic complications were recorded. Rapid teeth movement and relatively short

treatment duration were realized. Alveolar INCB024360 ic50 fenestration and bony dehiscence was successfully addressed. With physical and mechanical properties of absence of macrovibration, ease of use and control, piezosurgery showed its great values in PAOO.”
“Background: The diagnosis of heart failure with preserved left ventricular ejection fraction (HFpEF) is challenging. Although diagnostic criteria have been proposed, limited

information exists concerning its implication on prognosis. We aimed to evaluate the prognostic significance of applying the European Society of Cardiology algorithm for HFpEF diagnosis, namely the tissue Doppler imaging information, in patients with acute heart failure (HF). Hypothesis: The application of the European Society of Cardiology algorithm for HFpEF diagnosis, identifies a group of HF patients with high morbidity and mortality. Methods: Consecutive patients admitted due to acute HF were recruited. The European Society of Cardiology algorithm was used in the HFpEF diagnosis. Patients were followed for a 6-month period and mortality and rehospitalization due to HF were recorded. Selleckchem GW4869 Results: A total of 491 patients were included in this registry. Mean patient age was 78 years and 63% were women; 177 patients had HFpEF and 314 had HF with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF). Of the HFpEF patients, 44.8% had an E/E’ ratio >15 and 1.8% had an E/E’ ratio <8. Patients with HFpEF and those with HFrEF had a similarly dismal prognosis when considering all-cause mortality, and morbidity and mortality, but there was a trend for better survival when HF death was the outcome in analysis (hazard ratio 1.63 [95% confidence interval: 0.952.80, P = 0.08]).

(PACE 2009; 32:S228-S230)”
“X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy have been utilized to measure the ion irradiation-induced modification in amorphous Ge(2)Sb(2)Te(5) thin films. The isothermal crystallization of sputtered-deposited and Sb(+) ion irradiated amorphous samples has been studied, focusing on the evolution of the microstructure during the initial stage of the transformation. Cilengitide Cytoskeletal Signaling inhibitor In both samples, the amorphous to crystal transition occurs through the nucleation of face centered cubic (fcc) crystal domains at the film surface. A fast bidimensional growth of the crystalline nuclei in the sputtered-deposited films occurs by the generation of transrotational grains. The

lattice parameter decreases as the crystalline fraction increases above 80%, and it approaches the fcc bulk value at the end of the transformation. Ion irradiation produces a densification of the deposited amorphous film (similar to 4% vertical shrinkage measured by atomic force microscopy) and an enhancement of the crystallization rate. Even in the irradiated amorphous, the nucleation occurs at the film surface

and proceeds by the growth of the grains through the thickness of the layer although the density of the transrotational grains is strongly reduced with respect to the unirradiated amorphous. A link between the ion beam induced densification and the reduction of transrotational grains see more is proposed. (C) 2009 American Institute of Physics. [DOI: 10.1063/1.3148288]“
“Background. The Vanilloid subfamily of transient receptor potential (TRPV) ion channels has been widely implicated in detecting osmotic and mechanical stress. In the current Ruboxistaurin supplier study, we examine the functional expression of TRPV4 channels in cell volume regulation in cells of the human collecting duct. Methods. Western blot analysis, siRNA knockdown, and microfluorimetry were used to assess the expression and function of TRPV4 in mediating Ca2+-dependent

mechanical stimulation within a novel system of the human collecting duct (HCD). Results. Native and siRNA knockdown of TRPV4 protein expression was confirmed by western blot analysis. Touch was used as a cell-directed surrogate for osmotic stress. Mechanical stimulation of HCD cells evoked a transient increase in [Ca2+](i) that was dependent upon thapsigargin-sensitive store release and Ca2+ influx. At 48 hrs, high glucose and mannitol (25mM) reduced TRPV4 expression by 54% and 24%, respectively. Similar treatment doubled SGK1 expression. Touch-evoked changes were negated following TRPV4 knockdown. Conclusion. Our data confirm expression of Ca2+-dependent TRPV4 channels in HCD cells and suggest that a loss of expression in response to high glucose attenuates the ability of the collecting duct to exhibit regulatory volume decreases, an effect that may contribute to the pathology of fluid and electrolyte imbalance as observed in diabetic nephropathy.

01). EGFP protein expression was detected in the normal myocardium at 1 cm remote from the injection site in the EGFP + MB/US group. Similarly, HGF protein expression was detected in the ischemic myocardium at 0.5 cm Vorinostat remote from the injection site in the HGF + MB/US group. These findings indicate that the radius of gene expression was partly extended in the two plasmid + MB/US groups. The capillary density increased from 20.9 +/- A 5.3/mm(2) in control myocardial infarction dogs without treatment to 126.7 +/- A 38.2/mm(2) in the HGF + MB/US group ( < 0.01). Taken together, the present data demonstrate that direct intramyocardial injection of an angiogenic gene

and microbubbles combined with insonation can augment gene expression and angiogenesis. Consequently, this strategy

may be a useful tool for gene therapy of ischemic heart disease.”
“Striatal adenosine (A)2-dopamine (D)2 receptor (R) heteromers exist with antagonistic interactions. We have studied these Rs and their interactions during cocaine self-administration and extinction using a yoked’ protocol to understand the role of motivational mechanisms SB203580 datasheet behind the adaptive observed. In the ventral striatum, a significant increase in the A2AR density was observed in rats that received yoked’ cocaine during maintenance phase and following its extinction while this significant increase was only observed after extinction from cocaine self-administration. In the dorsal striatum, a significant increase in the affinity of A2ARs was determined in the two groups of rats that received www.selleckchem.com/products/lcl161.html cocaine during maintenance. D2-like Rs were significantly increased in the dorsal striatum of animals that received yoked’ cocaine during maintenance. In the rat dorsal, but not the ventral, striatum significant reductions in the EC50 values for dopamine and increases in the guanosine5-([]-thio)triphosphate (GTPS) accumulation were observed following active and passive cocaine injections during maintenance. After 10-day extinction, a significant reduction of the Bmax value of GTPS accumulation was demonstrated in the

dorsal striatum of rats previously self-administered cocaine, while a significant reduction of the EC50 value for dopamine in the ventral striatum was found in the yoked’ cocaine group. By comparing the cocaine self-administration group with the yoked’ cocaine group, evidence for the existence of motivational mechanisms that guide adaptive changes in the A2AR and D2R and in the D2-Gi coupling differentially developed in the ventral and dorsal striatum during cocaine maintenance and its extinction has been demonstrated.”
“Mucous membrane pemphigoid (MMP) is a rare autoimmune, subepidermal, bullous disease characterized by erosive lesions on the mucous membranes and skin. MMP reacts with various target antigens including BP180, laminin-332, beta 4 integrin, alpha 6 integrin or type VII collagen.

The polyclonal antibodies generated from the recombinant product of PeHSP90 were specifically identified not only in the recombinant product but also in the native protein from hemocytes. These results strongly

suggested that PeHSP90 was involved in heavy metal challenge and thermal stress regulation in P. esculenta.”
“The performance (activity FK506 in vivo stability enantioselectivity and productivity) of the commercial ketoreductase immobilized on non-porous glass supports was investigated as functions of the water activity and the reaction temperature in a continuous gas phase reactor The enantioselective reduction of 2-butanone to (S)-2-butanol with the in situ regeneration of beta-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate by 2-propanol catalyzed by the immobilized ketoreductase was used as a model reaction The activity stability and enantioselectivity were strongly influenced by the water activity and the reaction temperature The optimal water activity and reaction temperature were obtained at 0 8 and 313-323 K in terms of the productivity respectively Successfully the enantioselectivity for the gas phase system attained the level identical to that for the

aqueous phase system (C) 2010 Elsevier BV All rights reserved”
“Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene): polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS) hybrid films containing Ag nanoparticles were synthesized Selleck HDAC inhibitor by a one-step aqueous method. The embedded Ag nanoparticles were produced using PEDOT as a reducing agent and PSS as a stabilizer. We have also demonstrated nanoparticle growth with increasing reaction time and silver nitrate content.

Finally, as a nanocomposite-containing nanoparticle without surface-capping molecules S3I-201 and embedded in a conducting polymer matrix, the Ag NPs-PEDOT: PSS nanocomposite is interesting because it represents a type of material in which a metallic nano-island is embedded in the semiconducting matrix with a pure interface. One-step synthesized silver nanoparticles were found to induce a lowering of the work function and an increase of the highest occupied molecular orbital level in pristine PEDOT: PSS films by electron exchange with PEDOT, and also induced an inhibition of the electrostatic bond between PEDOT and PSS. (C) 2011 American Institute of Physics. [doi:10.1063/1.3596570]“
“Pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ) has been shown to protect primary cultured hippocampal neurons from glutamate-induced cell apoptosis by scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS) and activating phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt signaling. We investigated the downstream pathways of PI3K/Akt involved in PQQ protection of glutamate-injured hippocampal neurons. Western blot analysis indicated that PQQ treatment following glutamate stimulation triggers phosphorylation of glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta, accompanied by maintenance of Akt activation.

95 GHz) radiofrequencies (RF) would induce chronic illness in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats.

Materials and methods: Two groups of 40 SD rats (50% males and females in sham and

exposed groups) were exposed to CDMA and WCDMA RF simultaneously at 2.0 W/kg for 45 min/day (total 4.0 W/kg), 5 days per week for a total of one year. Body and organ weight measurements, urinalysis, haematological and blood biochemical analysis, and histopathological evaluations were performed.

Results: The mortality patterns in male and female rats exposed to RF were compared with those found in gender-matched sham control animals. No significant alteration in body weight Selleckchem CH5183284 was observed with the simultaneous combined RF exposure. Most RF-exposed rats showed no significant alteration, based on urinalysis, haematology, blood biochemistry, or histopathology. However, some altered parameters of the complete blood count and serum chemistry were seen in RF-exposed rats. The total tumour incidence was not different between sham-exposed and RF-exposed animals.

Conclusions: Our results suggest that one-year chronic exposure to CDMA (849 MHz) and WCDMA (1.95 GHz) RF simultaneously at 2.0 W/kg for 45-min RF exposure periods (total, 4 W/kg) did not increase chronic illness in rats, LY2835219 although there were some altered parameters in the complete blood count and serum chemistry.”
“Poly(styrene-co-divinylbenzene)

microspheres with size ranging from 1.6 to 1.8 mu m were prepared in acetic acid by precipitation polymerization. The particle size and particle size distribution were determined by laser diffraction particle size analyzer, and the morphology of the particles was observed with scanning electron

microscope. Besides, effects of various polymerization parameters such as initiator and total monomer concentration, divinylbenzene (DVB) content, polymerization time and polymerization temperature on the morphology and particle size were investigated in this article. In addition, the yield of microspheres increased with the increasing total monomer concentration, initiator loading, DVB concentration and polymerization time. In addition, the optimum polymerization conditions for synthesis of monodisperse crosslinked AL3818 poly(styrene-co-divinylbenzene) microspheres by precipitation polymerization in acetic acid were obtained. (C) 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2012″
“We studied the switching dynamics of a ferroelectric-gate thin-film transistor (FeTFT) consisting entirely of oxide-based thin films: SrRuO3 (SRO: bottom-gate electrode), Pb(Zr,Ti)O-3 (PZT: ferroelectric), and ZnO (semiconductor). We switched the FeTFT channel conductance by applying short pulses to the gate electrode. We found that the switching of a FeTFT was caused by the domain wall motion in a ferroelectric film. The polarization reversal starts from the region located under the source and drain electrodes and travels along the channel length direction.

All six sarcomas corresponded to ameloblastic fibrosarcoma. Thirteen cases occurred in men and 12 in women, age ranged from buy AZD8186 7 to 77years old, with a mean of 41.4years. The average age of patients with carcinomas and sarcomas were 48.53 and 19years old, respectively.

Conclusion

As malignant odontogenic tumors are very rare, this series helps to better clarify their relative frequency, predominant subtypes, and clinical characteristics in Latin America.”
“Image quality in 3-D optoacoustic (photoacoustic) tomography is greatly influenced by both the measurement system, in particular the

number and spatial arrangement of ultrasound sensors, and the ability to account for the spatio-temporal response of the sensor element(s) in the reconstruction algorithm. Herein we present a reconstruction procedure based on the inversion of a time-domain forward model incorporating the spatial impulse C188-9 mouse response due to the shape of the transducer, which is subsequently applied in a tomographic system based on a translation-rotation scan of a linear detector array. The proposed method

was also adapted to cope with the data-intensive requirements of high-resolution volumetric optoacoustic imaging. The processing of 2.10(4) individual signals resulted in well-resolved images of both similar to 200 mu m absorbers in phantoms and complex vascular structures in biological tissue. The results reported herein demonstrate that the introduced model-based methodology exhibits a better contrast and resolution than standard back-projection and model-based algorithms that assume point detectors. Moreover, the capability of handling large datasets anticipates that model-based methods incorporating the sensor properties can become standard practice in volumetric optoacoustic image formation.”
“Objectives

To characterize demographic,

clinical and serological parameters in recurrent aphthous stomatitis (RAS) patients and analyse their association with serum immunoglobulin E (IgE) levels.

Subjects and Methods

Forty-nine patients with Selleckchem GSK1210151A RAS responded to a questionnaire that included demographic background, stress status, smoking habits, history and course of RAS episodes. They were also subjected to relevant laboratory tests, including determination of serum IgE levels.

Results

A familial history of RAS was reported by 47.9% of the patients, stress in the previous year by 51.1% and smoking by 18.4%. Non-Caucasian origin, familial history of RAS, stress and smoking were associated with increased severity of RAS episodes. Haematological deficiencies were observed in 18.7% of RAS patients.

Significant online extrapressure in the filament was predicted in the case of supersonic air jets as resulting from polymer viscoelasticity, which could have led to longitudinal splitting of the polymer into subfilaments. (C) 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 119: 53-65, 2011″
“The goal of this study was to identify assessment tools and associated behavioral domains that differentiate children with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures (PNES) from those with epilepsy. A sample of

24 children with PNES (mean age 14.0 years, 14 female), 24 children with epilepsy (mean age 13.6 years, 13 female), and their parents were recruited from five epilepsy centers in the United States. Participants completed a battery of behavioral questionnaires selleckchem including somatization, anxiety, and functional disability symptoms. Children with PNES had significantly higher scores on the Childhood Somatization https://www.selleckchem.com/products/MS-275.html and Functional Disability Inventories, and their parents reported more somatic problems on the Child

Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Depression, anxiety, and alexithymia instruments did not differentiate the groups. Measures of somatization and functional disability may be promising tools for differentiating the behavioral profile of PNES from that of epilepsy. Increased somatic awareness and perceived disability emphasize the similarity of PNES to other pediatric somatoform disorders. (C) 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.”
“The plant secondary metabolites glucosinolates (GSL) have important functions in plant resistance to herbivores and pathogens. We identified all major GSL that accumulated in S-cells in Arabidopsis by MALDI-TOF MS, and estimated

by LC-MS that the total GSL concentration in these cells is >130 mM. The precise locations of the S-cells outside phloem bundles in rosette and cauline leaves and in flower stalks were visualised using sulphur mapping by cryo-SEM/energy-dispersive X-ray analysis. S-cells contain up to 40% of the total sulphur in flower stalk tissues. S-cells in emerging flower stalks and developing leaf tissues show typical signs of programmed cell death (PCD) or apoptosis, Torin 2 mw such as chromatin condensation in the nucleus and blebbing of the membranes. TUNEL staining for DNA double-strand breaks confirmed the occurrence of PCD in S-cells in post-meristematic tissues in the flower stalk as well as in the leaf. Our results indicate that S-cells in post-meristematic tissues show an extreme degree of metabolic specialisation in addition to PCD. Accumulation and maintenance of a high concentration of GSL in these cells are accompanied by degradation of a number of cell organelles. The substantial changes in cell composition during S-cell differentiation indicate the importance of this particular GSL-based phloem defence system.