9%. This was somewhat higher than the percentage in the

American sample assessed in 2004 (5.8%). No significant difference was found between women and men (6.9% and 6.8%, respectively). Age was inversely related to the prevalence of compulsive buying. Individuals with compulsive buying reported more depressive symptoms assessed via the German version of the Brief Patient Health Questionnaire Mood Scale (PHQ-9). Further research on this topic is needed to establish a clearer delineation of when excessive buying is clinically significant and should be treated and how it ICG-001 mouse could be prevented. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“The present study aimed to identify the brain processes and their time course underlying the typical behavioral recognition advantage of happy facial Belnacasan nmr expressions. To this

end, we recorded EEG activity during an expression categorization task for happy, angry, fearful, sad, and neutral faces, and the correlation between event-related-potential (ER?) patterns and recognition performance was assessed. N170 (150-180 ms) was enhanced for angry, fearful and sad faces; N2 was reduced and early posterior negativity (EPN; both, 200-320 ms) was enhanced for happy and angry faces; P3b (350-450 ms) was reduced for happy and neutral faces; and slow positive wave (SPW; 700-800 ms) was reduced for happy faces. This reveals (a) an early processing (N170) of negative affective valence (i.e., angry, fearful, and sad), (b) discrimination (N2 and EPN) of affective intensity or arousal (i.e., angry and happy), and (c) facilitated categorization (P3b) and decision 17-DMAG (Alvespimycin) HCl (SPW) due to expressive distinctiveness (i.e., happy). In addition, N2, EPN, P3b, and SPW were related to categorization accuracy and speed. This suggests that conscious expression recognition and the typical happy face advantage depend on encoding of expressive intensity and, especially, on later response selection, rather than on the early processing

of affective valence. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Crohn’s disease is a relapsing systemic inflammatory disease, mainly affecting the gastrointestinal tract with extraintestinal manifestations and associated immune disorders. Genome wide association studies identified susceptibility loci that-triggered by environmental factors-result in a disturbed innate (ie, disturbed intestinal barrier, Paneth cell dysfunction, endoplasmic reticulum stress, defective unfolded protein response and autophagy, impaired recognition of microbes by pattern recognition receptors, such as nucleotide binding domain and Toll like receptors on dendritic cells and macrophages) and adaptive (ie, imbalance of effector and regulatory T cells and cytokines, migration and retention of leukocytes) immune response towards a diminished diversity of commensal microbiota.

Experimental participants performed the DO versus CO procedures concurrently, while undergoing event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Separately, control participants provided data for: the NDO condition; related comparison tasks, which biased them toward different degrees MAPK inhibitor of delay-period retrospection; and null-event trials. Expectedly, the more explicit process of prospecting an intended associative choice implicated the

lateral PFC, as part of and together with other components of the multiple-demand network. Comparisons against null-event trials indicated that the sustained delay activity observed in MTL and LPPC, respectively, was part of default brain activity. These results demonstrated that short-term retrospection and prospection may emerge without necessarily relying on working memory-specific

brain networks. Furthermore, attention may not necessarily be recruited to realize working memory. When cognitive processes are spontaneously experienced, they may be facilitated by the default brain network. (c) 2012 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Nervous necrosis virus (NNV) is the cause of viral nervous disease, which is a serious constraint on production for grouper aquaculture. Real-time PCR is commonly used to detect and quantify NNV, has the disadvantages selleck of being expensive and technically demanding. In this study, an immunomagnetic reduction (IMR) assay was developed as a rapid and cost-effective alternative to real-time PCR. This method used magnetic nanoparticles conjugated with antibodies specific for viral surface antigens to detect NNV in grouper tissue samples. The association of NNV with the antibody-conjugated magnetic particles resulted in a reduction in magnetic

signal, which was strongly correlated with the concentration of NNV, as determined by real-time PCR. Grouper larvae were prepared for testing using a viral extraction buffer which provided a rapid, 15-min method of extracting viral antigens and had an extraction efficiency of higher than 80%. In addition, this study proposes selleck products using magnetic nanoparticles as labeling markers and as an assaying reagent for NNV. The magnetic nanoparticles are functionalized with antibodies against the viral surface of NNV and are able to associate specifically with NNV. The reduction of the magnetic signals comes from the association between magnetic particles and NNV, and relates to the concentration of NNV. The results show that the detected concentrations of NNV are highly correlated to those detected by real-time PCR. (C) 2012 Elsevier BM. All rights reserved.”
“Proteasome inhibitors are potential therapeutic agents in the treatment of hepatocarcinoma and other liver diseases.

(C) 2008 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Glyoxalase-1 (Glo1) is an antioxidant enzyme which detoxifies alpha-ketoaldehydes to prevent the accumulation of pro-oxidant compounds, PRT062607 research buy such as methylglyoxal, in all cell types. Glo1 has been suggested to be involved in anxiety disorders, autism, and Alzheimer’s disease. Mood disorders have a high rate of comorbidity

with anxiety disorders although, to date, little is known of the involvement of Glo1 in the pathophysiology of these conditions. In the present study, we examined the expression levels of Glo1 mRNA in peripheral white blood cells of mood disorder patients to understand the role of Glo1 in mood disorders. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction experiments revealed that reduced expression of Glo1 mRNA was observed in major depressive and bipolar disorder

patients in a current depressive state, as compared with healthy control subjects. In contrast, the expression of Glo1 mRNA in major depressive and bipolar patients, in a remissive state, showed no significant alteration when compared with healthy control subjects. These results suggest that the aberrant expression of Glo1 might be involved in the pathophysiology of mood disorders. (C) 2008 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Rolipram, an inhibitor of phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) proteins that hydrolyze cAMP, increases axonal regeneration following spinal cord injury (SCI). Recent buy MX69 evidence indicate that rolipram also protects against a multitude of apoptotic signals, many of which are implicated in secondary cell death post-SCI. In the present study, we used immunohistochemistry and morphometry to determine potential spinal cord www.selleck.cn/products/lonafarnib-sch66336.html targets of rolipram and to test its protective potential in rats undergoing cervical spinal cord contusive injury. We found that 3 PDE4 subtypes (PDE4A, B, D) were expressed by spinal cord oligodendrocytes. OX-42 immunopositive microglia only expressed the PDE4B subtype. Oligodendrocyte somata were quantified within the cervical ventrolateral funiculus, a white matter

region critical for locomotion, at varying time points after SCI in rats receiving rolipram or vehicle treatments. We show that rolipram. significantly attenuated oligodendrocyte death at 24 h post-SCI continuing through 72 h, the longest time point examined. These results demonstrate for the first time that spinal cord glial cells express PDE4 subtypes and that the PDE4 inhibitor rolipram, protects oligodendrocytes from secondary cell death following contusive SCI. They also indicate that further investigations into neuroprotection and axonal regeneration with rolipram are warranted for treating SCI. (C) 2008 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Genetic inhibition of the ephrin receptor (EphA6) in mice produced behavioral deficits specifically in tests of learning and memory. Using a fear conditioning training paradigm, mice deficient in EphA6 did not acquire the task as strongly as did wild type (WT) mice.

, Miami Lakes, FL) with the distal extent of the device migrating from the right P2 segment into the neck of the aneurysm. Coil embolization was performed despite migration of the vascular reconstruction SB203580 concentration device.

CONCLUSION: The use of stents

in the endovascular treatment of cerebral aneurysms has vastly improved our ability to treat complex lesions. Technical issues remain with these devices, and description of this event may alter the way we use the Enterprise Vascular Reconstruction Device and Delivery System in terms of staging procedures, and when evaluating the particular vascular anatomy of the individual patient with special attention to parent artery vessel size.”
“Much professional awareness regarding environmental triggers for ASD has been narrowly focused on a single possible exposure pathway (vaccines). Meanwhile, empirical support for environmental toxins as a broad class has been quietly accumulating. Recent research has shown that persons with ASD have comparatively higher levels of various toxins and are more likely to have reduced detoxifying ability, and, that rates of ASD may be higher in areas with greater pollution. This report documents that

within the state with the highest rate of ASD, the rate is higher Omipalisib for schools near EPA Superfund sites, t (332) = 3.84, p = .0001. The reasons for the rise in diagnoses likely involve genetically predisposed individuals being exposed to various environmental triggers at higher rates than in past generations. Published by Elsevier Inc.”
“Background: Fish is an important source of nutrition worldwide. Fish contain both the neurotoxin methyl mercury (MeHg) and nutrients important for brain development. The developing brain appears to be most sensitive to MeHg

toxicity and mothers who consume fish during pregnancy expose Selleckchem BMS-777607 their fetus prenatally. Although brain development is most dramatic during fetal life, it continues for years postnatally and additional exposure can occur when a mother breast feeds or the child consumes fish. This raises the possibility that MeHg might influence brain development after birth and thus adversely affect children’s developmental outcomes. We reviewed postnatal MeHg exposure and the associations that have been published to determine the issues associated with it and then carried out a series of analyses involving alternative metrics of postnatal MeHg exposure in the Seychelles Child Development Study (SCDS) Main Cohort.

Methods: The SCDS is a prospective longitudinal evaluation of prenatal MeHg exposure from fish consumption. The Main Cohort includes 779 subjects on whom recent postnatal exposure data were collected at the 6-, 19-, 29-, 66-, and 107-month evaluations. We examined the association of recent postnatal MeHg exposure with multiple 66- and 107-month outcomes and then used three types of alternative postnatal exposure metrics to examine their association with the children’s intelligence quotient (IQ) at 107 months of age.

Beyond GWA analyses, we also present relevant neurobiological roles of these axon-guidance-pathway molecules and consider mechanisms by which abnormal axon-guidance-molecule signaling can cause loss of connectivity and, ultimately, PD. Novel drugs and treatments could emerge from this new understanding.”
“Purpose:

Mitomycin C (Novaplus (R)) is often instilled intravesically in the postoperative period to prevent tumor cell implantation/regrowth after transurethral tumor resection. In an earlier study EGCG prevented tumor cell implantation/growth in an experimental bladder tumor model simulating clinical transurethral bladder resection. We compared the efficacy of EGCG (Polyphenon E (R)) to that of mitomycin C to prevent tumor cell implantation/growth in this model.

Materials and Methods: Mitomycin C and EGCG were studied for their Fedratinib cost in vitro and in vivo effects. The AY-27 rat

urothelial tumor cell line was used for in vitro and in vivo studies. In vitro cell viability studies included trypan blue exclusion, MTT proliferation assay and clonal growth assay. Fischer 344 female rats were used for intravesical tumor implantation/growth assay using an electrocautery injury model. Tumor growth in vivo was assessed in controls treated with phosphate buffered saline and in bladders treated with mitomycin C or EGCG by standard histological techniques using Selleck Acalabrutinib hematoxylin and eosin 4 weeks after injury.

Results: Mitomycin C and EGCG showed cytotoxicity on all in vitro assays. They were equivalent JQ-EZ-05 for preventing intravesical tumor growth.

Conclusions: EGCG prevents intravesical tumor growth with efficacy equivalent to that of mitomycin C in this experimental model.”
“Mirror neurons are thought to facilitate emotion processing, but it is unclear whether the valence of an emotional presentation (positive or negative)

can influence subsequent mirror neuron activity. Participants completed a transcranial magnetic stimulation experiment that involved stimulation of the primary motor cortex, and electromyography recording from contralateral hand muscles. This was performed while participants viewed videos of either a static hand or a transitive hand action preceded by either a positive or negative stimulus. Corticospinal excitability facilitation during action observation was significantly greater following the presentation of negative (relative to positive) stimuli: this was evident for the first dorsal interosseous muscle (which was central to the observed grasp), but not for the abductor digiti minimi muscle. This study provides evidence that emotional valence can modulate mirror neuron activity, which may reflect an adaptive mechanism. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Neuropsychological function-brain structure relationships may differ as a function of illness stage because of progressive brain matter loss through the course of schizophrenia.

9-0.4 miles/day). A sedentary control

group sat daily on immobile treadmills (n=8). Half of the runners had an additional sedentary learn more period for 3 months at the end of the exercise period (n=8). In all groups, half of the monkeys were middle-aged (10-12 years old) and half were more mature (15-17 years old). Starting the fifth week of exercise training, monkeys underwent cognitive testing using the Wisconsin General Testing Apparatus (WGTA). Regardless of age, the exercising group learned to use the WGTA significantly faster (4.6 +/- 3.4 days) compared to controls (8.3 +/- 4.8 days; P=0.05). At the end of 5 months of running monkeys showed increased fitness, and the vascular volume fraction in the motor cortex in mature adult HSP990 running monkeys was increased significantly compared to controls (P=0.029). However, increased vascular volume did not remain apparent after a 3-month sedentary period. These findings indicate that the level of exercise associated with improved fitness in middle-aged humans is sufficient to increase both the rate of learning and blood flow to the cerebral cortex, at least during the

period of regular exercise. (C) 2010 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“In infected cells, hepatitis C virus (HCV) induces the formation of membrane alterations referred to as membranous webs, which are sites of RNA replication. In addition, HCV RNA replication also occurs in smaller membrane structures that are associated with the endoplasmic reticulum. However, cellular mechanisms

involved in the formation of HCV replication complexes remain largely unknown. Here, we used brefeldin A (BFA) to investigate cellular mechanisms involved in HCV infection. BFA acts on cell membranes by interfering with the activation of several members of the family of ADP-ribosylation factors (ARF), which can lead to a wide range of inhibitory actions on membrane-associated mechanisms of the secretory and endocytic pathways. Our data show that HCV RNA replication is highly sensitive to BFA. Individual knockdown of the cellular targets of BFA using RNA interference and the use of a specific pharmacological inhibitor identified GBF1, a guanine nucleotide Wortmannin cost exchange factor for small GTPases of the ARF family, as a host factor critically involved in HCV replication. Furthermore, overexpression of a BFA-resistant GBF1 mutant rescued HCV replication in BFA-treated cells, indicating that GBF1 is the BFA-sensitive factor required for HCV replication. Finally, immunofluorescence and electron microscopy analyses indicated that BFA does not block the formation of membranous web-like structures induced by expression of HCV proteins in a nonreplicative context, suggesting that GBF1 is probably involved not in the formation of HCV replication complexes but, rather, in their activity.

Rather they appear to be stable, trait-like characteristics of an individual, a finding that has important implications for our understanding of the neurocognitive basis of delusions. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“At the 2008 annual meeting of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology (ACNP), a symposium was devoted to the following question: ‘what have we learned about the design of pragmatic clinical trials (PCTs) from the

recent costly long-term, large-scale trials of psychiatric treatments?’ in order to inform the design of future trials. In all, BX-795 in vivo 10 recommendations were generated placing emphasis on (1) appropriate conduct of pragmatic trials; (2) clinical, rather than, merely AZD5363 datasheet statistical significance; (3) sampling from the population clinicians are called upon to treat; (4) clinical outcomes of patients, rather than, on outcome measures; (5) use of stratification, controlling, or adjusting when necessary and not otherwise; (6) appropriate consideration of site differences in multisite studies; (7) encouragement of ‘post

hoc’ exploration to generate (not test) hypotheses; (8) precise articulation of the treatment strategy to be tested and use of the corresponding appropriate design; (9) expanded opportunity for training of researchers and reviewers in RCT principles; and (10) greater emphasis on data sharing. Neuropsychopharmacology (2010) 35, 2491-2501; doi:10.1038/npp.2010.115; published online 25 August 2010″
“Social and financial considerations are often integrated when real life decisions are made, and recent studies have provided evidence that similar brain networks are engaged PD173074 research buy when either social or financial information is integrated. Other studies, however, have suggested that the neuropeptide oxytocin can specifically affect social behaviors, which would suggest separable mechanisms at the pharmacological level. Thus, we examined the hypothesis that oxytocin would specifically affect social and not financial information in a decision making task, in which participants learned which of the two faces, one smiling and the

other angry or sad, was most often being rewarded. We found that oxytocin specifically decreased aversion to angry faces, without affecting integration of positive or negative financial feedback or choices related to happy vs sad faces. Neuropsychopharmacology ( 2010) 35, 2502-2509; doi:10.1038/npp.2010.110; published online 15 September 2010″
“Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) has long been implicated in regulation of mood. Medications that block the neuronal 5-HT transporter (SERT) are used as major pharmacological treatment for mood disorders. Conversely, stimuli that enhance SERT activity might be predicted to diminish synaptic 5-HT availability and increase the risk for 5-HT-related CNS disorders. We have shown that the inflammatory cytokines enhance brain SERT activity in cultured serotonergic cells and nerve terminal preparations in vitro.

Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd.”
“Human noroviruses cause approximately 58% of foodborne illnesses in the USA. Recent studies have shown norovirus attachment to the carbohydrates moieties of host cellular receptors. Using murine norovirus (MNV) as a surrogate, an ELISA method was utilized to assess attachment through binding to host cell receptors; MNV attachment was correlated to infectivity determined by plaque

assay. ELISA plates were coated with porcine gastric mucin and untreated, heat-, high pressure-, ozone- and UV-treated MNV was added followed by monoclonal anti-MNV IgG antibody. The average OD405 of MNV-containing wells were divided by negative control wells and expressed as the ‘P/N ratio’: values >= 2 were considered positive. Infectivity of MNV following heat and HPP treatments was determined using the plaque assay. Heat-treated MNV attachment decreased significantly with decreasing viral infectivity whereby the P/N SRT2104 ratio

was <2 after treatment at 80 and 100 degrees C for 5 mm which correlated with a non-intact capsid as shown by RNase treatment. No significant difference in attachment was observed for pressure-, ozone- and UV-treated MNV. These findings suggest potentially different Selleckchem ZD1839 effects on the viral capsid due to different food processing methods. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.”
“Abnormalities in dendritic spines have commonly been observed in brain specimens from epilepsy patients and animal models of epilepsy. However, the functional implications and clinical consequences of this dendritic pathology for epilepsy are uncertain. Dendritic spine abnormalities may promote hyperexcitable circuits

and seizures in some types of epilepsy, especially in specific genetic syndromes with documented dendritic pathology, but in these cases it is difficult to differentiate their effects on seizures versus other comorbidities, such as QNZ chemical structure cognitive deficits and autism. In other situations, seizures themselves may cause damage to dendrites and dendritic spines and this seizure-induced brain injury may then contribute to progressive epileptogenesis, memory problems and other neurological deficits in epilepsy patients. The mechanistic basis of dendritic spine abnormalities in epilepsy has begun to be elucidated and suggests novel therapeutic strategies for treating epilepsy and its complications.

This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Dendritic Spine Plasticity in Brain Disorders. (c) 2012 IBRO Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Illusions provide a useful tool to study the mechanisms by which top-down and bottom-up processes interact in perception. Patients suffering from schizophrenia are not as subject to the hollow-mask illusion as healthy controls, since studies have shown that controls perceive a hollow mask as a normal face, while patients with schizophrenia do not.

Many other factors may influence the frequency of the valves in the axillary vein. (J Vase Surg 2011;54:70S-6S.)”
“The cooperative organization of enzymes by cells is a key feature for the efficiency of living systems. In the field of nanotechnologies, effort currently aims at mimicking this natural organization. Nanoscale resolution and high-registration alignment are necessary to control enzyme distribution in nano-containers or on the surface of solid

supports. Virus capsid self-assembly is driven by precise supramolecular combinations of protein monomers, which have made them attractive building blocks to engineer enzyme nano-carriers (ENCs). We discuss some examples of what in our opinion constitute the latest advances in the use of plant viruses, bacteriophages and virus-like particles (VLPs) as nano-scaffolds for enzyme selection, enzyme confinement and patterning, 4-Hydroxytamoxifen nmr phage therapy, raw material 4SC-202 datasheet processing, and single molecule enzyme kinetics studies.”
“Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most common cancer diagnosis and the second most common cause of cancer-related deaths in men. Currently, serum prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is the only biomarker widely used in the diagnosis and management of patients with PCa. However, PSA lacks diagnostic sensitivity and specificity leading to false-negative and false-positive test results. PSA cannot distinguish indolent from aggressive disease, leading to many patients being over-treated with associated

side-effects. Further-more, PSA is unable to identify which tumors are likely to become unresponsive to treatment at an early stage. Thus, there is an urgent need for clinically validated biomarkers which will improve the diagnosis

and management of PCa. Given the heterogeneity of PCa it is likely that a panel of biomarkers will be required. in the quest for PCa biomarkers, a wide range of samples including urine, serum, tissues, and cell lines have been studied using proteomic approaches such as 2-DE, SELDI-TOF, SILAC, ICAT, iTRAQ, and MALDI-IMS. The value of these technologies, and other emerging platforms such as selected reaction monitoring (SRM) selleck and multiple reaction monitoring (MRM), are discussed in the context of biomarker discovery, validation and addressing the “”bottle-necks”" that exist prior to clinical translation.”
“Thoracic venous aneurysm is an extremely rare condition. This report describes the case of a 70-year-old woman with a left brachiocephalic venous aneurysm that caused recurrent nerve paralysis. Contrast-enhanced computed tomography and venography revealed a venous aneurysm, 4 cm in size, located adjacent to the venous angle. Anticoagulation therapy was started, and 1-1/2 months later, the aneurysm greatly decreased in size and showed marked calcification along its periphery. Venous aneurysms that shrink after anticoagulation therapy are exceptionally rare. The clinical features of this condition have been briefly reviewed. (J Vase Surg 2011;54:77S-9S.

Focused optogenetic stimulation of the lateral orbitofrontal cortex and its terminals

in the striatum restored the behavioral response inhibition, restored the defective down-regulation, and compensated for impaired fast-spiking neuron striatal microcircuits. These findings raise promising potential for the design of targeted therapy for disorders involving excessive repetitive behavior.”
“Background: selleck compound The cell surface receptors CD4 and CCR5 bind CCR5-tropic HIV Envelope (Env) glycoprotein during virus attachment. These same receptors have signaling activities related to normal immune cell functions. We also know that Env binds to CCR5 present at high levels on CD4-negative.d T cells where it signals through p38 MAP kinase to activate caspases and Fas-independent cell death. Here, we asked whether Env signaling

through cellular receptors is responsible for death among uninfected CD4+/CCR5+ T cells and what are the effects of Env on CD4 +/CCR5-negative cells that might impact click here HIV infection. The outcomes of Env binding are analyzed in terms of signal transduction and the effects on cell activation or cell death pathways.

Results: Env binding to CD4 signals through Erk and Akt kinases. Activation of Erk/Akt suppresses p38 due to CCR5 binding, and allows cell survival. When CD4 signaling was blocked by soluble CD4 or protein kinase inhibitors, p38 activation and Fas-independent cell death were increased among uninfected CD4+ CCR5+ T cells. We also noted specific effects of CD4 signaling on CCR5-negative CD4 T cells in tonsil lymphocyte cultures. Exposure to CCR5-tropic HIV Env (BaL strain) increased expression of CXCR5, PD-1, Fas and FasL. Among CD4+/CCR5-T cells expressing high levels of CXCR5 and PD-1, there were substantial amounts of Fas-dependent cell death. Increased CXCR5 and PD-1 expression was blocked by soluble CD4 or specific inhibitors of the Akt kinase, showing a direct relationship between CD4 signaling, T cell activation and Fas-dependent cell death.

Conclusions: Specific inhibition of Akt activation increased Env-dependent cell death of CCR5+ CD4

T cells. The same inhibitor, antibodies blocking 17-DMAG (Alvespimycin) HCl the CD4 binding site on gp120, or soluble CD4 also prevented the increase in expression of CXCR5 or PD-1, and reduced the levels of Fas-dependent cell death. The Akt kinase and related signaling events, are key to cell survival that is needed for productive infection, and may be targets for the development of antivirals. Specific inhibitors of Akt would decrease productive infection, by favoring cell death during virus attachment to CD4+ CCR5+ target cells, and reduce immune activation to prevent Fas-dependent death of uninfected CXCR5+ PD-1+ CD4 T cells including T follicular helper cells that share this phenotype.”
“Background: Live attenuated SIV induces potent protection against superinfection with virulent virus; however the mechanism of this vaccine effect is poorly understood.